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iTS GRAMMAR IMPROVED 



THE 

INSTITUTES 

OF 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

METHODICALLY ARRANGED; 

WITH 

FORMS OF PARSING AND CORRECTING, EXAMPLES FOR PARSING, 

QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION, FALSE SYNTAX FOR COR- 

RECTION, EXERCISES FOR WRITING, OBSERVATIONS 

FOR THE ADVANCED STUDENT, 

METHODS OF ANALYSIS, 

AND 

A KEY TO THE ORAL EXERCISES: 

TO WHICH ARE ADDED FIVE APPENDIXES. 

DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. 



BY GOOLD BROWN, 

PRINCIPAL OF AN ENGLISH AND CLASSICAL ACADEMY, NEW YORK. 









* Be quis igitur tanquam parva fastidiat Gramtnatices eleineuta." — Qiuntilian. 



A NEW EDITION, 
WITH EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING, 

BY HENRY KIDDLE, A. M., 
» 

SUPERINTENDENT OP COMMON SCHOOLS, NEW YORK CITY. / 



NEW YORK: 
WILLIAM WOOD & CO., 27 GREAT JONES ST. 

1872. 






i tmy 

ADVERTISEMENT. 



The excellence of Brown's Grammars, both as treatises and school- 
books, is very generally acknowledged. The repeated demands, however, 
for a more extended treatment of the u Analysis of Sentences" than was 
thought necessary by the author, has induced the publishers to issue a new 
edition, containing a full and progressive exposition of this department of 
grammar, and an entirely new series of exercises and examples, both for 
analysis and parsing, with observations and references to make them corre- 
spond with the body of the work. The exercises in Analysis, and the defini- 
tions necessary to explain them, have not been confined to the department 
of Syntax, as in most other grammatical text-books, but made to commence 
at a point where the intelligent progress of the pupil seems to demand such 
aid. In the present edition numerous corrections and alterations have been 
made, including new lists of Irregular and Redundant Verbs. There has 
also been added a chapter of Oral Exercises (Appendix V.) intended as an 
introduction to the study of Grammar, which it is believed will be found 
serviceable to many teachers. No attempt has been made to change the 
system of grammar therein explained ; because, while no change could 
possibly accommodate it to the views of all, the intelligent teacher can find 
no difficulty in varying it, in a few minor particulars, so as to make it cor- 
respond with his own views. With these alterations, the publishers hope 
that these works will be found more useful to the public, and a more val- 
uable aid to teachers in imparting instruction in this important branch of 
education 
August, 1872. 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1856, by 

GOOLD BROWN, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by 

WILLIAM WOOD & CO., 

In the Office, of the Librarian of Congress at Washington, D. C. 



PREFACE 



"Xeqiu enlm aut aliena vituperate, aut nostra jactantiiis prcedicare, animus eat**l 

1. Language is the principal vehicle of thought ; and so numerous and important 
are the ends to which it is subservient, that it is difficult to conceive in what manner 
the affairs of human society could be conducted without it. Its utility, therefore, will 
ever entitle it to a considerable share of attention in civilized communities, and to an 
important place in all systems of education. For, whatever we may think in relation 
to its origin — whether we consider it a special gift from Heaven, or an acquisition of 
industry — a natural endowment, or an artificial invention, — certain it is, that, in the 
present state of things, our knowledge of it depends, in a great measure, if not entirely, 
on the voluntary exercise of our faculties, and on the helps and opportunities afforded 
us. One may indeed acquire, by mere imitation, such a knoAvledge of words, as to 
enjoy the ordinary advantages of speech ; and he who is satisfied with the dialect he 
has so obtained, will find no occasion for treatises on grammar ; but he who is desirous 
either of relishing the beauties of literary composition, or of expressing kis sentiments 
with propriety and ease, must make the principles of language his study. 

2. It is not the business of the grammarian to give lano to language, but to teach it, 
agreeably to the best usage. The ultimate principle by which he must be governed, 
and with which his instructions must always accord, is that species of custom which 
critics denominate good use; that is, present, reputable, general use. This principle, 
which is equally opposed to fantastic innovation, and to a pertinacious adherence to 
the quaint peculiarities of ancient usage, is the only proper standard of grammatical 
purity. Those rules and modes of speech, which are established by this authority, 
may be called the Institutes of Grammar. 

3. To embody, in a convenient form, the true principles of the English Language ; 
to express them in a simple and perspicuous style, adapted to the capacity of youth ; 
to illustrate them by appropriate examples and exercises ; and to give to the whole all 
possible advantage from method in the arrangement; are the objects of the following 
work. The author has not deviated much from the principles adopted in the most 
approved grammars already in use ; nor has he acted the part of a servile copyist. It 
was not his design to introduce novelties, but to form a practical digest of established 
rules. He has not laboured to subvert the general system of grammar, received from 
time immemorial ; but to improve upon it, in its present application to our tongue. 

4. That which is excellent, may not be perfect; and amendment may be desirable, 
where subversion would be ruinous. Believiug that no theory can better explain the 
principles of our language, and no contrivance afford greater facilities to the student, 
the writer has in general adopted those doctrines which are already best known ; and 
has contented himself with attempting little more than an improved method of incul- 
cating them. The scope of his labours has been, to define, dispose, and exemplify 
those doctrines anew ; and, with a scrupulous regard to the best usage, to offer, on 
that authority, some further contributions to the stock of grammatical knowledge. 
The errors of former grammarians he has been more studious to avoid than to expose ; 
and of their deficiencies the reader may judge, when he sees in what manner they aro 
here supplied. 

5. This treatise being intended for general use, and adapted to aH classes of learners, 
was designed to embrace in a small compass a complete course of English Grammar, 
disencumbered of every thing not calculated to convey direct information on the sub- 
ject. Little regard has therefore been paid to gainsayers. Grammarians have ever 
disputed, and often with more acrimony than discretion. Those who have dealt niosfc 
in philological controversy, have well illustrated the couplet of Denham : 

" The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes, 
Produces sapless leaves in stead of fruits." 

6. They who set aside the authority of custom, and judge every thing to be ungram- 
matical which appears to them to be unphilosophical, render the whole ground forever 
disputable, and weary themselves in beating the air. So various have been the notions 
of this sort of critics, that it would be difficult to mention an opinion not found in 
6ome of their books. Amidst this rage for speculation on a subject purely practical, 
various attempts have been made, to overthrow that system of instruction, which long 
use has rendered venerable, and long experience proved to be useful. But it is mani- 
festly much easier to raise even plausible objections against this 6ystem, than to in- 



IV PREFACE. 

vent an other less objectionable. Such attempts have generally met the reception 
they deserved. Their history will give no encouragement to future innovators. 

7. "While some have, thus wasted their energies in eccentric Mights, vainly supposing 
that the learning of ages would give place to their whimsical theories; others, with 
more success, not better deserved, have multiplied grammars almost innumerably, by 
abridging or modifying the books they had used in childhood. So that they who are 
at all acquainted with the origin and character of the various compends thus intro- 
duced into our schools, cannot but desire a work which shall deserve a more extensive 
and more permanent patronage, based upon better claims. For, as Lord Bacon ob- 
eerves, the number of ill-written books is not to be diminished by ceasing to write, bu* 
by writing others which, like Aaron's serpent, shall swallow up the spurious. 

8. The nature of the subject almost entirely precludes invention. The author has, 
however, aimed at that kind and degree of originality, which are to be commended in 
works of ^his sort ; and has borrowed no more from others than did the most learned 
and popular of his predecessors. And, though he has taken the liberty to think and 
write for himself, he trusts it will be evident that few have excelled him in diligence 
of research, or have followed more implicitly the dictates of that authority which 
gives law to language. 

9. All science is laid in the nature of things ; and he only who seeks it there, can 
Tightly guide others in the paths of knowledge. He alone can know whether his pre- 
decessors went right or wrong, who is capable of a judgement independent of theirs. 
But with what shameful servility have many false or faulty definitions and rules been 
copied and copied from one grammar to another, as if authority had canonized their 
errors, or none had eyes to see them ! Whatsoever is dignified and fair, is also modest 
and reasonable ; but modesty does not consist in having no opinion of one's own, nor 
reason in following with blind partiality the footsteps of others. Grammar unsup- 
ported by authority, is indeed mere fiction. But what apology is this, for that author- 
ship which has produced so many grammars without originality? Shall he who can- 
not write for himself, improve upon Mm who can? It is not deference to merit, but 
impudent pretence, practising on the credulity of ignorance! Commonness alone 
exempts it from scrutiny, and the success it has, is but the wages of its own worth- 
lessness ! To read and be informed, is to mske a proper use of books for the advance- 
ment of learning; but to assume to be an at .<;hor by editing mere commonplaces and 
stolen criticisms, is equally beneath the ambition cf a scholar and the honesty of a 
man. 

10. Grammar being a practical art, with the principles of which every intelligent 
person is more or less acquainted, it might be expected that a book written professedly 
on the subject, should exhibit some evidence of its author's skill. But it would seem 
that a multitude of bad or indifferent writers have judged themselves qualified to 
teach the art of speaking and writing well ; so that correctness of language and neat- 
ness of style are as rarely to be found in grammars as in other books. There have 
been, however, several excellent scholars, who have thought it an object not unworthy 
of their talents, to prescribe and elucidate the principles of English Grammar. But 
these, for an obvious reason, have executed their designs with various degrees of suc- 
cess ; and even the most meritorious have left ample room for improvement, though 
some have evinced an ability which does honour to themselves, while it gives cause 
to regret their lack of an inducement to further labour. The mere grammarian can 
neither aspire to praise, nor stipulate for a reward ; and to those who were best quali- 
fied to write, the subject could offer no adequate motive for diligence. 

11. Having devoted many years to studies of this nature, and being conversant with 
most of the grammatical treatises already published, the author conceived that the 
objects above enumerated, might, perhaps, be better effected than they had been in 
any work within his knowledge. And he persuades himself that the improvements 
here offered, are neither few nor inconsiderable. He does not mean, however, to de- 
preciate the labours, or to detract from the merits of those who have gone before him 
and taught with acknowledged skill. He has studiously endeavoured to avail himself 
of all the light they have thrown upon the subject. For his own information, he has 
carefully perused more than two hundred English grammars, and has glanced over 
many others that were not worth reading. With this publication in view, he has also 
resorted to the original sources of grammatical knowledge, and has not only critically 
considered what he has seen and heard of our vernacular tongue, but has sought with 
tome diligence the analogies of speech in the structure of several other languages. 

12. His progress in compiling this work has been slow, and not unattended with 
labour and difficulty. Amidst the contrarieties of opinion, that appear in the various 
treatises already before the public, and the perplexities inseparable from so complicated 
a subject, he has, after deliberate consideration, adopted those views and explanations 
which appeared to him the least liable to objection, and the most compatible with his 
ultimate object — the production of a practical school grammar. 

13. Ambitious of making not a large but au acceptable book, he has compressed int« 
this volume the most essential parts of a mass of materials from which he could as 
easily have formed a folio. Whether the toil be compensated or not, is a matter of 
little consequence ; he has neither written for bread, nor built castles in the air. He 
fc too well versed in the history of his theme, too well aware of the precarious fortune 



PREFACE. V 

©f authors, to indulge any confident anticipations of success ; yet he will not deny that 
his hopes are large, being. conscious of having cherished them with a liberality of feel- 
ing -which cannot fear disappointment, In this temper he would invite the reader to 
a thorough perusal of the following pages. A grammar should speak for itself. In a 
work of this nature, every word or tittle which does not recommend the performance 
to the understanding and taste of the skillful, is, so far as it goes, a certificate against 
it. Yet, if some small errors have escaped detection, let it be recollected that it is al- 
most impossible to print with perfect accuracy a work of this size, in which so many 
little things should be observed, remembered, and made exactly to correspond. There 
is no human vigilance which multiplicity may not sometimes baffle, and minuteness 
6ometimes elude. To most persons grammar seems a dry and difficult subject ; but 
there is a disposition of mind, to which what is arduous, is for that very reason allu- 
ring. The difficulties encountered in boyhood from the use of a miserable epitome, 
and the deep impression of a few mortifying blunders made in, public, first gave the 
author a fondness for grammar ; circumstances having since favoured this turn of his 
genius, he has voluntarily pursued the study, with an assiduity which no man will ever 
imitate for the ^ake of pecuniary recompense. 

14. This work contains a full series of exercises adapted to its several parts, with 
notices of the manner in which they are to be used, according to the place assigned 
them. The examples of false syntax placed under the rules, are to be corrected oral- 
ly; the four chapters of exercises adapted to the four parts of the subject, are to be 
written out by the learner. In selecting examples for these exercises, the author has 
been studious to economize the learner's and the teacher's time, by admitting those 
only which were very short He has, in general, reduced each example to a single 
line. And, in this manner, he has been able to present, in this small volume, a series 
of exercises, more various than are given in any other grammar, and nearly equal in 
number to all that are contained in Murray's two octavoes. It is believed that a gram- 
matical treatise at once 60 comprehensive and concise, has not before been offered to 
the public. 

15. The only successful method of teaching grammar, is, to cause the principal defi- 
nitions and rules to be committed thoroughly to memory, that they may ever after- 
wards be readily applied. Oral instruction may smooth the way, and facilitate the 
labour of the learner; but the notion of communicating a competent knowledge of 
grammar without imposing this task, is disproved by universal experience. Nor will 
it avail any thing for the student to rehearse definitions and rules of which he makes 
no practical application. In etymology and syntax, he should be alternately exercised 
in learning small portions of his book, and then applying them in parsing, till the 
whole is rendered familiar. To a good reader, the achievement will be neither great 
nor difficult ; and the exercise is well calculated to improve the memory, and strength- 
en all the faculties of the mind. 

16. The mode of instruction here recommended is the result of long and successful 
experience. There is no.th.ing in it, which any person of common abilities will find it 
difficult to understand or adopt. It is the plain didactic method of definition and ex- 
ample, rule and praxis; which no man who means to teach grammar well, will ever 
desert, with the hope of finding an other more rational or more easy. The book itself 
will make any one a grammarian, who will take the trouble to observe and practise 
what it teaches; and even if some instructors should not adopt the readiest and most 
efficient method of making their pupils familiar with its contents, they will not fail to 
instruct by it as effectually as they can by any other. "Whoever is acquainted with 
the grammar of our language, so as to have some tolerable skill in teaching it, will 
here find almost every thing that is true in his own instructions, clearly embraced 
under its proper head, so as to be easy of reference. And perhaps there are few, how- 
ever learned, who, on a perusal of the volume, would pot be furnished with some im- 
portant rules and facts which had not before occurred to their own observation. 

17. The greatest peculiarity of the method is, that it requires the pupil to speak or 
write a great deal, and the teacher very little. But both should constantly remember 
that grammar is the art of speaking and writing well; an art which can no more be 
acquired without practice than that of dancing or swimming. And each should be 
careful to perform his part handsomely — without drawling, omitting, stopping, hesita- 
ting, faltering, miscalling, reiterating, stuttering, hurrying, slurring, mouthing, mis- 
quoting, mispronouncing, or any of the thousand faults which render utterance dis- 
agreeable and inelegant. It is the learner's diction that is to be improved ; and the 
system will be found well calculated to effect that object ; because it demands of bim, 
not only to answer questions on grammar, but also to make a prompt and practical 
application of what he has j ust learned. If the class be tolerable readers, it will not 
be necessary for the teacher to say much ; and, in general, he ought not to take up 
the time by so doing. He should, however, carefully superintend their rehearsals ; 
give the word to the next, when any one errs; and order the exercise in such a man- 
ner that either his own voice, or the example of his best scholars, may gradually cor- 
rect the ill habits of the awkward, till all learn to recite with clearness, understanding 
well what they say, and making it intelligible to others. 

18. The exercise of parsing commences immediately after the first lesson of etymoU 
ogy, and is carried on progressively till it embraces all the doctrines that are aj>plica« 

1* 



VI PEEFACE. 

ble to it. If it be performed according to the order prescribed, it will soon make the 
(student perfectly familiar with all the primary definitions and rules of grammar. It 
requires j ;nst enough of thought to keep the mind attentive to what the lips are utter- 
ing ; while it advances by such easy gradations and constant repetitions as leave the 
pupil utterly without excuse, if he does not know what to say. Being neither wholly 
extemporaneous nor wholly rehearsed by rote, it has more dignity than a school-boy' 8 
conversation, and more ease than a formal recitation, or declamation ; and is therefore 
an exercise well calculated to induce a habit of uniting correctness with fluency in or- 
dinary speech — a species of elocution as valuable as any other. 

19. The best instruct-on is that which ultimately gives the greatest facility and skill 
in practice ; and grammar is best taught by that process which brings its doctrines 
most directly home to the habits as well as to the thoughts of the pupil — which the 
most effectually conquers inattention, and leaves the deepest impress of shame upon 
blundering ignorance. In the whole range of school exercises, there is none of greater 
importance than that of parsing; and yet perhaps there is none which is, in general, 
more defectively conducted. Scarcely less useful, as a means of instruction, is the 
practice of correcting false syntax orally, by regular and logical forms of argument; 
nor does this appear to have been more ably directed towards the purposes of disci- 
pline. There is so much to be done, in order to effect what is desirable in the man- 
agement of these things ; and so little prospect that education will ever be generally 
raised to a just appreciation of that study which, more than all others, forms the mind 
to habits of correct thinking ; that, in reflecting upon the state of the science at the 
present time, and upon the means of its improvement, the author cannot but sympa- 
thize, in some degree, with the sadness of the learned Sanctius ; who tells us, that he 
had " always lamented, and often with tears, that while other branches of learning 
were excellently taught, grammar, which is the foundation of all others, lay so much 
neglected, and that for this neglect thei'e seemed to be no adequate remedy." — Pre/, to 
Minerva. The grammatical use of language if in sweet alliance with the moral ; and a 
similar regret seems to have prompted the following exclamation of the Christian poet: 

" Sacred Interpreter of human thought, 
How few respect or use thee as they ought!" — Cowper. 

20. No directions, either oral or written, can ever enable the heedless and the un- 
thinking "to speak or write well. That must indeed be an admirable book, which can 
attract levity to sober reflection, teach thoughtlessness the true meaning of words, 
raise vulgarity from its fondness for low examples, awaken the spirit winch attains to 
excellency of speech, and cause grammatical exercises to be skillfully managed, where 
teachers themselves are so often lamentably deficient in them. Yet something may 
be effected by means of a better book, if a better can be introduced. And what with- 
stands? — Whatever there is of ignorance or error in relation to the premises. And is 
it arrogant to say there is much ? Alas ! in regard to this, as well as to many a 
weightier matter, one may too truly affirm, MulLu, non sunt sicut multis videntur — 
Many things are not as they seem to many. Common errors are apt to conceal them- 
selves from the common mind; and the appeal to reason and just authority is often 
frustrated, because a wrong head defies both. But, apart from this, there are difficul- 
ties: multiplicity perplexes choice ; inconvenience attends change; improvement re- 
quires effort; conflicting theories demand examination; the principles OS' the science 
are unprofitably disputed ; the end is often divorced from the means ; and much that 
belies the title, has been published under the name. 

21. It is certain, that the printed formularies most commonly furnished for the im- 
portant exercises of parsing and correcting, are either so awkwardly written, or so 
negligently followed, as to make grammar, in the mouths of our juvenile orators, little 
else than a crude and faltering jargon. Murray evidently intended that his book of 
exercises should be constantly used with his grammar; but he made the examples in 
the former so dull and prolix, that few learners, if any, have ever gone through the 
scries agreeably to his direction. The publishing of them in a separate volume, has 
probably given rise to the absurd practice of endeavouring to teach his grammar with- 
out them. The forms of parsing and correcting which this author furnishes, are also 
misplaced ; and when found by the learner, are of little use. They are so verbose, 
awkward, irregular, aud deficient, that the pupil must be a dull boy, or utterly igno- 
rant of grammar, if he cannot express the facts extemporaneously in better English. 
"When we consider how exceedingly important it is, that the business of a school 
should proceed without loss of time, and that, in the oral exercises here spoken of, 
each pupil should go through his part promptly, clearly, correctly, and fully, we can- 
not think it a light objection that these forms, so often to be repeated, arc badly writ- 
ten. Nor does the objection lie against this writer only : Ab uno disca omnes. Bub 
the reader may demand some illustx-ations. 

22. First — from his etymological parsing: "O Virtue! how amiable thou art!'* 
Here his form for the word Virtue is — " Virtue is a common substantive of the neuter 
gender, of the third person, in the singular number, and the nominative case." It 
should have been — " Virtue is a common noun, personified proper, of the second per~ 
son, singular number, feminine gender, and nominative case." And, then the defini- 
tions of all these things should have followed in regular numerical order. He givea 



PREFACE. VU 

the class of this noun wrong, for virtue addressed becomes an individual ; he gives the 
gender wrong, and in direct contradiction of what he says of the word, in his section 
on gender; he gives the person wrong, as may be seen by the pronoun thou; he re- 
peats the definite article three times unnecessarily, and inserts two needless preposi- 
tions, making them different where the relation is precisely the same : and all this, in 
a sentence of two lines, to tell the properties of the noun Virtue ! — But, in etymological 
parsing, the definitions explaining the properties of the parts of speech, ought to be 
regularly and rapidly rehearsed by the pupil, till all of them are perfectly familiar, 
and till he can discern, with the quickness of thought, what is true or false in the de- 
scription of any word in any intelligible sentence. All these the author omits ; and, 
on account of this omission, his whole method of etymological parsing is miserably de= 
ficient. 

23. Secondly — from his syntactical parsing: " Vice degrades us." Here his form 
for the word Vice is — " Vice is a common substantive of the third person, in the sin- 
gular number, and the nominative case." Now, when the learner is told that this is 
the syntactical parsing of a noun, and the other the etymological, he will of course con- 
clude, that to advance from the etymology to the syntax of this part of speech, is 
merely to omit the gender — this being the only difference between the two forms. But 
even this difference had no other origin than the compiler's carelessness in preparing 
his octavo book of exercises — the gender being inserted in the duodecimo. And what 
then ? Is the syntactical parsing of a noun to be precisely the same as the etymologi- 
cal? Never. But Murray, and all who admire and follow his work, are content to 
parse many words by halves — making a distinction, and yet often omitting, in both 
parts of the exercise, every thing which constitutes the difference. He should here 
have said — " Vice is a common noun of the third person, singular number, neuter gen- 
der, and nominative case : and is the subject of degrades; according to the rule which 
says, 'A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a verb, must be in the nominative 
case.' Because the meaning is — vice degrades.'" This is the whole description of the 
word, with its construction ; and to say less, is to leave the matter unfinished. 

24. Thirdly — from his "' mode of verbally correcting erroneous sentences : ' The man 
is prudent which speaks little. 1 This sentence," says Murray, "is incorrect; because 
which is a pronoun of the neuter gender, and does not agree in gender with its antece- 
dent man, which is masculine. But a pronoun should agree with its antecedent in 
gender, &c, according to the fifth rule of syntax. Which should therefore be who, a 
relative pronoun, agreeing with its antecedent man; and the sentence should stand 
thus: 'The man is prudent who speaks little.' " Again: " 'After I visited Europe, I 
returned to America.' This sentence" says he, "is not correct; because the verb 
visited is in the imperfect tense, and yet used here to express an action, not only past, 
but prior to the time referred to by the verb returned, to which it relates. By the 
thirteenth rule of syntax, when verbs are used that, in point of time, relate to each 
other, the order of time should be observed. The imperfect tense visited, should 
therefore have been had visited, in the pluperfect tense, representing the action of 
visiting, not only as past, but also as prior to the time of returning. The sentence 
corrected would stand thus: 'After I had visited Europe, I returned to America.' " 
These are the first two examples of Murray's verbal corrections, and the only ones re- 
tained by Alger, in his improved, recopy-righted edition of Murray's Exercises. Yet, 
in each of them, is the argumentation palpably false I In the former, truly, which 
should be who; but not because tohich is of the neuter gender ; but because the appli- 
cation of that relative to persons, is now nearly obsolete. (Jan any grammarian for- 
get *;hat, in speaking of brute animals, male or female, we commonly use which, and 
never who ? But if which must needs be neuter, the world is wrong in this. — As for 
the latter example, it is right as it stands : and the correction is, ia some sort, tauto- 
logical. The conjunctive adverb after makes one of the actions subsequent to the 
other, and gives to the visiting all the priority that is signified by the pluperfect 
tense. "After I visited Europe," is equivalent to " When I had visited Europe." 
The whole argument is therefore void. 

25. These few brief illustrations, out-of thousands that might be adduced in proof of 
thefaultiness of the common manuals, the author has reluctantly introduced, to show 
that, even in the most popular books, the grammar of our language has not been treat- 
ed with that care and ability which its importance demands. It is hardly to be sup- 
posed that men unused to a teacher's duties, can be qualified to compose such books 
as will most facilitate his labours. Practice is a better pilot than theory. And while, 
in respect to grammar, the evidences of failure are constantly inducing changes from 
one system to another, and almost daily giving birth to new expedients as constantly 
to end in the same disappointment; perhaps the practical instructions of an expe- 
rienced teacher, long and assiduously devoted to the study, may approve themselves 
to many, as seasonably supplying the aid and guidance which they require. 

26. From the doctrines of grammar, novelty is rigidly excluded. They consist of 
details to which taste can lend no charm, and genius no embellishment. A writer may 
express them with neatness and perspicuity — their importance alone can commend 
them to notice. Yet, in drawing his illustrations from the stores of literature, the 
grammarian may select some gems of thought, Avhich will fasten, ou the memory « 



nil PEEFACE. 

irorthy sentiment, or relieve the dullness of minute instruction. Such examples hav« 
been taken from various authors, and interspersed through th<5 following pages. 

27. The moral effect of early lessons being a point of the utmost importance, it is es* 
pecially incumbent on all those who are endeavouring to confer the benefits of intel- 
lectual culture, to guard against the admission or the inculcation of any principle which 
may have an improper tendency, and be ultimately prejudicial to those Avhom they in- 
struct. In preparing this treatise for publication, the author has been solicitous to 
avoid every thing that could be offensive to the most delicate and scrupulous reader ; 
and, of the several thousands of quotations given, he trusts that the greater part will 
be considered valuable on account of the sentiments they contain. 

28. He has not thought it needful, in a work of this kind, to encumber his pages 
with a useless parade of names and references, or to distinguish very minutely what is 
copied and what is original. All strict definitions of the same thing are necessarily 
similar. The doctrines of the work are, for the most part, expressed in his own lan- 
guage, and illustrated by that of others. Where authority was requisite, names have 
been inserted ; and in general also where there was room. In the doctrinal parts of 
the volume, not only quotations from others, but most examples made for the occasion, 
are marked with guillemets, to distinguish them from the main text; while, to al- 
most every thing which is really taken from any other known writer, a name or refer- 
ence is added. In the exercises for correction, few references have been given ; be- 
cause it is no credit to any author, to have written bad English. But the intelligent 
reader will recognize as quotations a large portion of the examples, and know from 
what works they are taken. To the school-boy this knowledge is neither important 
nor interesting 

29. Many of the definitions and rules of grammar have so long been public property, 
and have been printed under so many names, that it is difficult, if not impossible, to 
know to whom they originally belonged. Of these the author has freely availed him- 
self, though seldom without some amendment ; while he has carefully abstained from 
every thing on which he supposed there could now be any individual claim. He has 
therefore fewer personal obligations to acknowledge, than most of those who are re- 
puted to have written with sufficient originality on the subject. 

30. In truth, not a line has here been copied with any view to save the labour of com- 
position ; for, not to compile an English grammar from others already extant, but to 
compose one more directly from the sources of the art, was the task which the writer 
proposed to himself. And though the theme is not one upon which a man may hopo 
to write well with little reflection, it is true, that the parts of this treatise which have 
cost him the most labour, are those Avhich "consist chiefly of materials selected from 
the writings of others." These, however, are not the didactical portions of the book, 
but the proofs and examples ; which, according to the custom of the pneient gramma- 
rians, ought to be taken from other authors. But so much have the makers of our 
modern grammars been allowed to presume upon the respect and acquiescence of their 
readers, that the ancient exactness on this point would often appear pedantic. Many 
phrases and sentences either original or anonymous will therefore be found among the 
illustrations of the following work ; for it was not supposed that any reader would de- 
mand for every thing of this kind the authority of a great name. Anonymous exam- 
ples are sufficient to elucidate principles, if not to establish them; and elucidation is 
often the sole purpose for which an example is needed. 

31. The author is well aware that no writer on grammar has any right to propose 
himself as authority for what he teaches ; for every language, being the common prop- 
erty of all who use it, ought to be carefully guarded against any caprice of individuals, 
and especially against that which might attempt to impose erroneous or arbitrary defi- 
nitions and rules. " Since the matter of which we are treating," says the philologist 
of Salamanca, "is to be verified, first by reason, and then by testimony and usage, 
none ought to wonder if we sometimes deviate from the track of great men ; for, with 
whatever authority any grammarian may weigh with me, unless he shall have con- 
firmed his assertions by reason and also by examples, he shall win no confidence in 
respect to grammar. For, as Seneca says, Epistle 95, ' Grammarians are the guard- 
ians, not the authors, of language.' " — Minerva, Lib. i, Cap. ii. Yet, as what is in- 
tuitively seen to be true or false, is already sufficiently proved or detected, many 
points in grammar need nothing more than to be clearly stated and illustrated ; nay, it 
would seem an injurious reflection on the understanding of the reader, to accumulate 
proofs of what cannot but be evident to all who speak the language. 

32. Among men of the same profession, there is an unavoidable rivalry, so far aa 
they become competitors for the same prize ; but in competition there is nothing dis- 
honourable, while excellence alone obtains distinction, and no advantage is sought by 
unfair means. It is evident that we ought to account him the best grammarian, who 
has the most completely executed the worthiest design. But no worthy design can 
need a false apology ; and it is worse than idle to prevaricate. That is but a spurious 
modesty, which prompts a man to disclaim in one way what he assumes in an other 
— or to underrate the duties of his office, that he may boast of having "done all thai 
could reasonably be expected." Whoever professes to have improved the science of 
English grammar, must claim to know more of the matter than the generality of Eng- 
lish grammarians; and he who begins with saying that "little can be expected" from 



PREFACE. iX 

the office he assumes, must be •wrongfully contradicted when he is held to have dona 
much. Neither the ordinary power of speech, nor even the ability to write respecta- 
bly on common topics, makes a man a critic among critics, or enables him to judge of 
literary merit. And if, by virtue of these qualifications alone, a man will become a 
grammarian or a connoisseur, he can hold the rank only by courtesy — a courtesy 
which is content to degrade the character, that his inferior pretensions may be ac- 
cepted and honoured under the name. 

33. By the force of a late popular example, still too widely influential, grammatical 
authorship has been reduced in the view of many, to little or nothing more than a 
mere serving-up of materials anonymously borrowed ; and, what is most remarkable, 
even for an indifferent performance of this low office, not only unnamed reviewers, 
but several writers of note, have not scrupled to bestow the highest praise of gram- 
matical excellence! And thus the palm of superior skill in grammar, has been borne 
away by a professed compiler; who had so mean an opinion of what his theme re- 
quired, as to deny it even the common courtesies of compilation. What marvel is it, 
that, under the wing of such authority, many writers have since sprung up, to im- 
prove upon this most happy design : while all who were competent to the task, have 
been discouraged from attempting any thing like a complete grammar of our lan- 
guage ? What motive shall excite a man to long-continued diligence, where such no- 
tions prevail as give mastership no hope of preference, and where the praise of his inge- 
nuity and the reward of his labour must needs be inconsiderable, till some honoured 
compiler usurp them both, and bring his "most useful matter" before the world un- 
der better auspices? If the love of learning supply such a motive, who that has gen- 
erously yielded to the impulse, will not now, like Johnson, feel himself reduced to an 
"humble drudge"— or, like- Perizonius, apologize for the apparent folly of devoting 
his time to such a subject as grammar ? 

34. Since the first edition of this work, more than two hundred new compends, 
many of them professing to be abstracts of Murray with improvements, have been 
added to our list of English grammars. The author has examined about one hundred 
and fifty, and seen advertisements or notices of nearly half as many more. Being va- 
rious in character, they will of course be variously estimated ; but, so far as he can 
judge, they arc, without exception, works of little or no real -merit, and not likely to 
be much patronized or long preserved from oblivion. For which reason, he would 
have been inclined entirely to disregard the petty depredations which the writers of 
several of them have committed upon the following digest, were it not possible that 
by such a frittering-away of his work he himself might one day seem to some to have 
copied that from others which was first taken from him. Trusting to make it mani- 
fest to men of learning, that in the production of these Institutes far more has been 
done for the grammar of our language, than any single hand had before achieved 
within the limits of a school-book, and that with perfect fairness towards other 
writers; he cannot but feel a wish that the integrity of his text should be preserved, 
whatever else may befall^ and that the multitude of scribblers who judge it so need- 
ful to remodel Murray's defective compilation, would forbear to publish under his 
name or their own what they find only in the following pages. 

35. The mere rivalry of their authorship is no subject of concern; but it is enough 
for any ingenuous man to have toiled for years in solitude to complete a work of pub- 
lic utility, without entering a warfare for life to defend and preserve it. Accidental 
coincidences in books are unfrequent, and not often such as to excite the suspicion of 
the most sensitive. But, though the criteria of plagiarism are neither obscure nor dis- 
putable, it is not easy, in this beaten track of literature, for persons of little reading to 
know what is, or is not, original. Dates must be accurately observed. Many things 
must be minutely compared. And who will undertake such a task, but he that is per- 
sonally interested? Of the thousands who are forced into the paths of learning, few 
ever care to know, by what pioneer, or with what labour, their way was cast up for 
them. And even of those who are honestly engaged in teaching, not many are ade- 
quate judges of the comparative merits of the great number of books on this subject 
The common notions of mankind conform more easily to fashion than to trath ; and, 
even of some things within their reach, the majority seem content to take their opin- 
ions upon trust. Hence, it is vain to expect that that which is intrinsically best, will 
be everywhere preferred , or that which is meritoriously elaborate, adequately appre- 
ciated. But common sense might dictate that learning is not encouraged or respected 
by those who, for the making of books, prefer a pair of scissors to the pen. 

36. The real history of grammar is little known ; and many erroneous impressions 
are entertained concerning it : because the story of the systems most generally receiv- 
ed, has never been fully told ; and that of a multitude now gone to oblivion, was never 
worth telling. In the distribution of grammatical fame, which has chiefly been made 
by the hand of interest, we have had a -strange illustration of the sayi»g: " Unto every 
one that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance : but from him that hath 
not, shall be taken away even that which he hath." Some whom fortune has made 
popular, have been greatly overrated, if learning and talents are to be taken into tha 
account; since it is manifest, that with no extraordinary claims to either, they havu 
taken the very foremost rank among grammarians, and thrown the learning and talentg 
of others int© the shade, or made them tributary to their own succeas and popularity, & 



X PKEFACE. 

37. Few ■writers on grammar have been more noted than Lily and Murray. A law 
was made in England by Henry the Eighth, commanding Lily's grammas " only 
everywhere to be taught, for the use of learners and for the hurt in changing of 
schoolemaisters." — Pref. to Lily, p. xiv. Being long kept in force by means of a 
special inquiry directed to be made by the bishops at their stated visitations, this law, 
for three hundred years, imposed the book on all the established schools of the realm. 
Yet it is certain, that about one half of what has thus gone under the name of Lily, 
(" because," says one of the patentees, " he had so considerable a hand in the compo- 
sition,") was written by Dr. Colet, by Erasmus, or by others who improved the -work 
after Lily's death. (See Ward's Preface to the book, 1793.) And of the other half, 
history incidentally tells, that neither the scheme nor the text was original. The 
Printer's Grammar, London, 1787, speaking of the art of type-foundery, says: "The 
Italians in a short time brought it to that perfection, that in the beginning of the year 
1474, they cast a letter not much inferior to the best types of the present age; as may 
be seen in a Latin Grammar written by Omnibonus Leonicenus, and printed at Padua 
on the 14th of January, 1474; from whom our grammarian, Lily, has taken the entire 
scheme of his grammar, and transcribed the greatest part thereof , without paying any 
regard to the memory of this author." The historian then proceeds to speak about 
types. See also the History of Printing, 8vo, London, 1770. This is the grammar 
which bears upon its titlepage: " Quam, solam Regia Majestas in omnibus scholia 
docendam prcecipiV 

38. Murray was an intelligent and very worthy man, to whose various labours in the 
compilation of books our schools are under many obligations. But in original thought 
and critical skill he fell far below most of " the authors to whom," he confesses, " the 
grammatical part of his compilation is principally indebted for its materials ; namely, 
Harris, Johnson, Lowth, Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, Coote, Blair, and 
Campbell." — Introd. to Gram., p. 7. It is certain and evident that he entered upon 
his task with a very insufficient jn-eparation. His biography informs us, that," Gram- 
mar did not particularly engage his attention, until a short time before the publication 
of his first work on that subject;" that, "His grammar, as it appeared in the first 
edition, was completed in rather less than a year — though he had an intervening ill- 
ness, which for several weeks stopped the progress of the work;" and that, "the Ex- 
ercises and Key were also composed in about a year." — Life of L. Murray, p. 188. 
From the very first sentence of his book, it appears that he entertained but a low and 
most erroneous idea of the duties of that sort of character in which he was about to 
come before the public. He improperly imagined, as many others have done, that 
"little can be expected" from a modern grammarian, or (as he chose to express it) 
*'from a new compilation, besides a careful selection of the most useful matter, and 
some degree of improvement in the mode of adapting it to the understanding, and the 
gradual progress of learners." — Introd. to Gram., 8vo, p. 5; 12mo, p. 3. As if, to be 
master of his own art — to think and write well himself, were no part of a grammarian's 
business! And again, as if the jewels of scholarship, thus carefully selected, could 
need a burnish or a foil from other hands than those which fashioned them ! 

39. Murray' s general idea of the doctrines of grammar was j udicious. He attempted 
no broad innovation on what had been previously taught; for he had neither the vanity 
to suppose he could give currency to novelties, nor the folly to waste his time in la- 
bours utterly nugatory. By turning his own abilities to their best account, he seems 
to have done much to promote and facilitate the study of our language. But his no- 
tion of grammatical authorship, cuts off from it all pretence to literary merit, for the 
sake of doing good ; and, taken in any other sense than as a forced apology for his own 
assumptions, his language on this point is highly injurious towards the very authors 
whom he copied. To justify himself, he ungenerously places them, in common with 
others, under a degrading necessity which no able grammarian ever felt, and which 
every man of genius or learning must repudiate. If none of our older grammars 
disprove his assertion, it is time to have a new one that will ; for, to expect the perfec- 
tion of grammar from him who cannot treat the subject in a style at once original and 
pure, is absurd. He says, " The greater part of an English grammar must necessarily 
be a compilation;" and adds, with reference to his own, "originality belongs to but a 
small portion of it. This I have acknowledged ; and I trust this acknowledgement 
will protect me from all attacks, grounded on any supposed unjust and irregular as- 
sumptions." — Letter, 1811. The acknowledgement on which he thus relies does not 
appear to have been made, till his grammar had gone through several editions. It 
•qfras then inserted as follows: " In a work which professes to be a compilation, and 
which, from the nature and design of it, must consist chiefly of materials selected 
from the writings of others, it is scarcely necessary to apologize for the use which the 
©ompiler has made of his predecessors' labours, or for omitting to insert their names." 
—Introd. to Gram., 8vo, p. 7; 12mo, p. 4. 

40. For the nature and design of a book, whatever they may be, the author alone is 
answerable ; but the nature and design of grammar, are no less repugnant to the strain 
of this apology, than to the vast number of errors and defects which were overlooked 
by Murray in Ins work of compilation. There is no part of the volume more accurate, 
than that which he literally copied from Lowth. To the Short Introduction alone he 
was indebted for more than a hundred and twenty paragraphs ; and eyea in. tnesa 



PREFACE. XX 

there are many things obviously erroneous. Many of the best practical notes -were 
taken from Priestley ; yet it was he, at whose doctrines were pointed most of thosa 
" positions and discussions," which alone the author claims as original. To some, 
however, his own alterations may have given rise ; for, where he " persuades himself 
he is not destitute of originality," he is often arguing against the text of his own earlier 
editions. Webster's well-known complaints of Murray's unfairness, had a far better 
cause than requital; for there was no generosity in ascribing them to peevishness, 
though the passages in question were not worth copying. On perspicuity and accuracy, 
about sixty pages were extracted from Blair, and it requires no great critical acumen 
to discover, that they are miserably deficient in both. On the law of language, there 
are fifteen pages from Campbell ; which, with a few exceptions, are well written. The 
rules for spelling are the same as Walker's: the third one, however, is a gross blun- 
der; and the fourth, a needless repetition. Were this a place for minute criticism, 
blemishes almost innumerable might be pointed out. It might easily be shown that 
almost every rule laid down in the book for the observance of the learner, was repeat- 
edly violated by the hand of the master. Nor is there among all those who have since 
abridged or modified the work, an abler grammarian than he who compiled it. "Who 
will pretend that Flint, Alden, Comly, Jaudon, Russell, Bacon, Lyon, Miller, Alger, 
Maltby, Ingersoll, Fisk, Greenleaf, Merchant, Kirkham, Cooper, R. G. Greene, Wood- 
worth, Smith, or Frost, has exhibited greater skill? It is curious to observe, how 
frequently a grammatical blunder committed by Murray, or some one of his prede- 
cessors, has escaped the notice of all these, as well as of many others who have found 
it easier to copy him than to write for themselves. 

41. But Murray's grammatical works, being at pnee extolled in the reviews, and 
made common stock in trade, — being published, both in England and in America, by 
booksellers of the most extensive correspondence, and highly commended even by 
those who were most interested in the sale of them, — have been eminently successful 
with the public; and, in the opinion of the world, success is the strongest proof of 
merit. Nor has the force of this argument been overlooked by those who have written 
in aid of his popularity. It is the strong point in most of the commendations which 
have been bestowed upon Murray as a grammarian. A recent eulogist computes, that*. 
" at least five millions of copies of his various school-books have been printed ;" par- \ 
ticulaiiy commends him for bis " candour and liberality towards rival authors ;" avers ■' 
that, "he went on, examining and correcting his grammar, through all its forty edi- jj 
tions, till he brought it to a degree of perfection which will render it as permanent as . 
the English language itself;" j censures (and not without reason) the "•presumption" 
of those "superficial critics" who have attempted to amend the work, and usurp hi3 
honours; and, regarding the compiler's confession of his indebtedness to others, but 
as a mark of " his exemplary diffidence of his own merits," adds, (in very bad Eng- 
lish,) "Perhaps there never was an author whose success and fame were more unex- 
pected by himself, than Lindley Murray.' 1 '' — The Friend, Vol. iii, p. 33. 

42. In a New- York edition of Murray's Grammar, printed in 1S12, there was in- 
serted a "Caution to the Public," by Collins & Co., his American correspondents and 
publishers, in which are set forth the unparalleled success and merit of the work, "as 
it came in purity from the pen of the author;" with an earnest remonstrance against 
the several revised editions which had appeared at Boston, Philadelphia, and other 
places, and against the unwarrantable liberties taken by American teachers, in alter- 
ing the work, under pretence of improving it. In this article it is stated, "that the- 
ivhole of these mutilated editions have been seen and examined by Lindley Murray 
himself, and that they have met with his decided disapprobation. Every rational 
mind," continue these gentlemen, "will agree with him, that, 'the rights of livincj 
authors, and the interests of science and literature, demand the abolition of this un- 
generous practice.'' " Here, then, we have the opinion and feeling of Murray himself 
upon this tender point of right. Here we see the tables turned, and other men judg- 
ing it " scarcely necessary to apologize for the use which they have made of their 
predecessors' labours." 

43. It is not intended by the introduction of these notices, to impute to Murray any 
thing more or less than what his own words plainly imply; except those inaccuracies 
and deficiencies which still disgrace his work as a literary performance, and which of 
course he did not discover. He himself knew that he had not brought the book to 
such perfection as has been ascribed to it ; for, by way of apology for his frequent al- 
terations, he says, "Works of this nature admit of repeated improvements; and are, 
perhaps, never complete." But it is due to truth to correct erroneous impressions; 
and, in order to obtain from some an impartial examination ox the following pages, it 
seems necessary first to convince them that it is possible, to compose a better grammar 
than Murray's, without being particularly indebted to him. If this treatise is not 
such, a great deal of time has been thrown away upon a useless project; and if it is, 
the achievement is no fit subject for either pride or envy. It differs from his, and 
from every grammar based upon his, as a new map, drawn from actual and minuta 
surveys, differs from an old one, compiled chiefly from others still older and confess- 
edly still more imperfect. The region and the scope are essentially the same ; th« 
tracing and the colouring are more original ; aud (if the reader can pardon the 6u£f 
gestion) perhaps more accurate and Vivid. 



XU PREFACE. 

44. He who makes a new grammar, does nothing for the advancement of learning, 
unless his performance excel all earlier ones designed for the same purpose; and no- 
thing for his own honour, unless such excellence result from the exercise of his own 
ingenuity and taste. A good style naturally commends itself to every reader — even to 
him who cannot tell why it is worthy of preference. Hence there is reason to believe, 
that the true principles of practical grammar, deduced from custom and sanctioned by 
time, wjll never be generally superseded by any thing which individual caprice may 
^substitute. In the republic of letters, there will always be some who can distinguish 
merit ; and it is impossible that these should ever be converted to any whimsical theory 
of language, which goes to make void the learning of past ages. There will always 
he some who can discern the difference between originality of style, and innovation in 
doctrine — between a due regard to the opinions of others, and an actual usurpation of 
their text ; and it is incredible that these should ever be satisfied with any mere com- 
pilation of grammar, or with any such authorship as either confesses or betrays the 
writer's own incompetence. For it is not true, that " an English grammar must neces- 
sarily be," in any considerable degree, if at all, "a compilation;" nay, on such a 
theme, and in "the grammatical part" of the Arork, all compilation, beyond a fair use 
of authorities regularly quoted, or of materials either voluntarily furnished or free to 
all, most unavoidably implies — not conscious " ability," generously doing honour to 
rival merit — nor " exemplary diffidence," modestly veiling its own — but inadequate 
skill and inferior talents, bribing the public by the spoils of genius, and seeking pre- 
cedence by such means as not even the purest desire of doing good can justify. 

45. All praise of excellence must needs be comparative, because the thing itself is so. 
To excel in grammar, is but to know better than others wherein grammatical excel- 
lence consists. Hence there is no fixed point of perfection beyond which such learning 
may not be carried. The limit to improvement is not so much in the nature of the 
subject, as in the powers of the mind, and in the inducements to exert them upon a 
theme so humble and so uninviting. Dr. Johnson suggests in his masterly preface, 
"that a whole life cannot be spent upon syntax and etymology, and that even a whole 
life would not be sufficient." Who then will suppose, in the face of such facts and 
confessions as have been exhibited, that either in the faulty publications of Murray, 
or among the various modifications of them by other hands, Ave have any such Avork 
as deserves to be made a permanent standard of instruction in English grammar? — 
The author of this treatise will not pretend that it is perfect; though he has bestoAved 
upon it no inconsiderable pains, that the narrow limits to which it must needs be con- 
fined, might be filled up to the utmost advantage of the learner, as Avell as to the best 
direction and greatest relief of the teacher. 

46. A Key to the Oral Exercises in False Syntax, is inserted in the Grammar, that 
the pupil may be enabled fully to prepare himself for that kind of class recitations. 
Being acquainted Avith the rule, and having seen the correction, he may be expected 
to state the error and the reason for the change, without embarrassment or delay. It 
is the opinion of some teachers, that no Key in aid of the student should be given. 
Accordingly many grammars, not destitute of exercises in false syntax, are published 
without either formules of correction, or a Key to show the right reading. But Eng- 
lish grammar, in any extensive exhibition of it, is a study dry and difficult enough for 
the young, Avhen we have used our best endeavours to free it from all obscurities and 
doubts. The author thinks he has learned from experience, that, with explicit help 
of this sort, most pupils will not only gain more knowledge of the art in a given time, 
but in the end find their acquisitions more satisfactory and more permanent. 

47. A separate Key to the Exercises for Writing, is published for the convenience 
of teachers and private learners. For an obvious reason this Key should not be put 
into the hands of the school-boy. Being a distinct volume, it may be had, bound by 
itself or with the Grammar. Those teachers A^ho desire to exercise their pupils orally 
in correcting false grammar without a Key, can at any time make use of this series of 
examples for such purpose. 

4S. From the first edition of the following treatise, there was made by the author, 
for the use of young learners, a brief abstract, entitled, "The First Lines of English 
Grammar;" in Avhich are embraced all the leading doctrines of the original Avork, 
Avith a new series of examples for their application in parsing. Much that is important 
in the grammar of the language, was necessarily excluded from this epitome ; nor was 
it designed for those who can learn a larger book without Avearing it out. But econ- 
omy, as well as convenience, demands small and cheap treatises for children; and 
those teachers who approve of this system of grammatical instruction, Avill find many 
reasons for preferring the First Lines to any other compend, as an introduction to the 
study of these Institutes. 

49. Having undertaken and prosecuted this work, with the hope of facilitating the 
study of the English Language, and thus promoting the improvement of the young, 
the author now presents his finished labours to the candour and discernment of those 
to whom is committed the important business of instruction. How far he has suc- 
ceeded in the execution of his design, is willingly left to the just decision of those who 
are qualified to judge. GOOLD BROWN. 

Revised, Lynn, Mass., 1854 



POSTSCRIPT TO THE PREFACE. 



The school-book now pretty -well-known as "Brown's Institutes of English Gran* 
mar," was my first attempt at authorship in the character of a grammarian ; and, 
eatisfactory as it has been to the many thousands who have used it, it has never- 
theless, like all other not incorrigible attempts in this line, been found susceptible of 
6undry important emendations. So that I must believe with Murray, that, " Works 
of this nature admit of repeated improvements; and are, perhaps, never complete." 
It cannot, however, be said in my favour, as it has been in commendation of this 
author, that, " He went on examining and correcting his grammar through all its forty 
editions, till he brought it to the utmost degree of perfection ;" but something has 
been done in this way, three or four of the early editions of the Institutes having 
been severally retouched and improved by the author's hand , and now, an undimin- 
ished demand for the work having continued to spread its reputation, I have at 
length the satisfaction to have endeavoured yet once again to render it still mora 
worthy of the public favour. 

The time which has elapsed since the author first published this work, has been 
mainly spent in labours and studies tending very directly to enlarge and mature his 
knowledge of English Grammar ; and, especially, to better his acquaintance with the 
great variety of books and essays which have been written upon it. The principal 
result of these labours and studies has been given to the world in his large work 
entitled "The Grammar of English Grammars." To conform the future editions 
of these Institutes more nearly to the text of this large Grammar, to supply some 
deficiences which have been thought to lessen the comparative value of the former 
work, to divide the book more systematically into chapters and subdivisions, and to 
correct a few typographical errors which had crept in, were the objects contemplated 
in the revision which has now been effected. 

In making these improvements, I have not forgotten that alterations in a popular 
class-book are, on some accounts, exceedingly undesirable. The writer who ventures 
at all upon them, is ever liable to subject liis patrons and best friends to more or less 
inconvenience ; and for this he should be very sure of having presented, in every 
instance, an ample compensation. It is believed that the changes which the present 
revision exhibits, though they are neither few nor unimportant, need not prevent, in 
schools, a concurrent use of old editions with the new, till the former may be suf- 
ficiently worn out. What has been added or changed, will therefore lack no justifica- 
tion ; and the author will rest, with sufficient assurance, in the hope that the intelligent 
patronage which has hitherto been giving more and more publicity to his earliest 
teachings, will find, decidedly, and without mistake, in this improved form of tha 
vork, the best common school Grammar now extant. 

GOOLD BROWN. 
Lynn, Mass., 1855. 

2 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



PAGE. 

Preface to the Institutes ; iii~*ii. 

Postcript to the Preface ; xiii. 

Definition and Division of English Grammar ; 17. 

PAET L— OETHOGEAPHY. 

Chapter I.— Of Letters; 17. 

I. Names of the Letters ; 19. 

II. Classes of the Letters ; 20. 

III. Powers of the Letters; 24. 

IV. Forms of the Letters ; 26. 

Eules for the use of Capitals ; 27. 

Chapter IL— Of Syllables; 28. 

Diphthongs and Triphthongs ; 28. 

Eules for Syllabication ;....,... 29. 

Chapter III.— Of Words ; 29. 

Species and Figure of Words ; 29. 

Eules for the Figure of Words ; SO. 

Chapter IV.— Of Spelling ; 31. 

Eules for Spelling ; 31. 

Chapter V. — Questions on Orthography ; 33. 

Chapter VI.— Exercises in Orthography ; • 34. 

PAET II.— ETYMOLOGY. 

Chapter L— The Parts of Speech; 42- 

Parsing, Praxis I ; 44. 

Chapter II.— Of Articles ; 46. 

Chapter III.— Of Nouns ; 47< 

Persons ; 48. 

Numbers ; 49. 

Genders ; . . . 51. 

Cases ; 52. 

The Declension of Nouns ; 53. 

Analysis and Parsing, Praxis II ; 54. 

Chapter IV. — Of Adjectives ; 55. 

The Comparison of Adjectives ; . 56. 

Analysis and Parsing, Praxis III ; 59. 

Chapter V.— Of Pronouns ; 61. 

The Declension of Pronouns ; 63. 

Analysis and Parsing, Praxis IV ; 65. 

Chapter VI.— Of Verbs; 67. 

Moods; 68. 

Tenses; 70. 

Persons and Numbers ; 71. 

The Conjugation of Verbs; 74. 

The Form of Passive Verbs; 88. 

Irregular Verbs ; 91. 

Eedundant Verbs ; . . . 95. 

Defective Verbs : 97. 



CONTENTS. 



XV 



Chapter VII.— Of Participles ' . 

Analysis and Parsing, Praxis V ; 
Chapter VIII.— Of Adverbs ; 
Chapter IX. — Of Conjunctions; . 
Chapter X. — Of Prepositions ; 
Cuapter XI. — Of Interjections ; 

Analysis and Parsing, Praxis VI ; 
Chapter XII. — Questions on Etymology; 
Chapter XIII.— Exercises in Etymology ; 



PAKT III. — SYNTAX. 



Introductory Definitions ; . . . 
Chapter L— The Rules of Syntax, 

Analysis and Parsing, Praxis VII ; 
Chapter II.,— Of Eelation and Agreement; 

EuleL— Of Articles; 

Eule II.— Of Nominatives ; 

Rule III. — Of Apposition ; 

Rule IV.— Of Adjectives ; 

Rule V. — Of Pronouns ; . 

Rule VI. — Of the Pronoun and Collective Noun 

Rule VII. — Oc the Pronoun and Joint Antecedents 

Rule VIII. — Of the Pronoun and Disjunct Antecedents 

Rule IX.— Of Verbs ; 

iRule X. — Of the Verb and Collective Noun ; . 

Uule XL — Of the Verb and Joint Nominatives 

Rule XII. — Of the Verb and Disjunct Nominatives 

Rule XIII. —Of Verbs Connected; 

Rule XIV.— Of Participles ; . 

Rule XV— Of Adverbs: ' . 

Rule XVI. — Of Conjunctions ; . 

Rule XVII. —Of Prepositions ; 

Rule XVIII.— Of Interjections ; 
Chapter III. — Of Government ; 

Rule XIX. — Of Possessives; 

Rule XX.— Of Objectives ; 

Rule XXL— Of Same Cases ; . 

Rule XXIL— Of Objectives ; . 

Rule XXIIL— Of Infinitives ; . 

Rule XXIV.— Of Infinitives ; . 

Rule XXV.— Of the Case Absolute, or Independent 

Rule XXVL— Of Subjunctives ; 

False Syntax Promiscuous ; 
Chapter IV.— General Items; 

General Rule of Syntax ; . 

General Observations on the Syntax; 

False Syntax under the General Rule 

Analysis and Parsing ; 
Chapter V.— Questions on Syntax ; 
Chapter VI. — Exercises in Syntax ; 



PART IV. — PROSODY. 



Chapter I. — Of Punctuation; 

Section I. — Of the Comma ; 
Section II. — Of the Semicolon ; 
Section III.— Of the Colon ; . 
Section IV.— Of the Period ; . 
Section V— Of the Dash ; 



XVI 



CONTENTS. 



Section VI.— Of the Eroteme ; . 

Section VII.— Of the Ecphoneme ; 

Section V11I.— Of the Curves ; 

Section IX.— Of the Other Marks ; 
Chapter II. — Of Utterance ; 

Section I. — Of Pronunciation; . 

Section II. — Of Elocution ; 
Chapter III.— Of Figures ; 

Section I. — Figures of Orthography 

Section II. — Figures of Etymology ; 

Section III. — Figures of Syntax ; 

Section IV. — Figures of Ehetoric ; 
Chapter IV.— Of Versification ; 

Section I. — Of Quantity ; 

Section II.— Of Khyme ; 

Section III.— Of Poetic Feet ; . 

Section IV.— Of Scanning; 

Order I. — Iambic Verse ; . 
Order II.— Trochaic Verse ; 
Order III. — Anapestic Verse ; 
Order IV. — Dactylic Verse ; 
Chapter V. — Oral Exercises ; 

Examples for Parsing, Praxis VIII ; 
Chapter VI. — Questions on Prosody ; 
Chapter VII. — Exercises in Prosody ; 

KEY to Oral Exercises in False Syntax ; 
APPENDIX I.— Sounds of Letters ; 
APPENDIX II.— Of Derivation ; . 
APPENDIX III.— Of Style ; . 
APPENDIX IV.— Of Poetic Dictioa; 
APPENDIX V.— Oral Lessons ; . 



PAGE. 

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UQ. 
3M 



THE 



INSTITUTES 

OF 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



English Grammar is the art of speaking, reading, 
and writing the English language correctly. 

It is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthography, 
Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words, 
and spelling. 

Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, with 
their classes and modifications. 

Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, 
and arrangement, of words in sentences. 

Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and 
versification. 



PAET I. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography treats of letters, syllables, separate words, 
and spelling. 



CHAPTEE I— OF LETTEES. 

A Letter is an alphabetic mark, or character, com- 
monly representing some elementary sound of a word. . 

An elementary sound of a word, is a simple or pri- 
mary sound of the human voice, used in speaking. 

,The sound of a letter is commonly called its poiver : 
when any letter of a word is not sounded, it is said to be 
silent or mute, 

2* 



18 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART I. 

The letters in the English alphabet, are twenty-six ; 
the simple or primary sounds in the language, are about 
thirty-six or thirty -seven. 

A knowledge of the letters consists in an acquaintance 
with these four sorts of things ; their names, their classes, 
their powers, and their forms. 

The letters are written, or printed, or painted, or en» 
graved, or embossed, in an infinite variety of shapes and 
sizes ; and } 7 et are always the same, because their essen- 
tial properties do not change, and their names, classes, 
and powers, are mostly permanent. 

The following are some of the different sorts of types, 
or styles of letters, with which every reader should be 
early acquainted: — 

1. The Eoman : A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, 
II h, I i, J j, K k, L 1, M m, N n, O o, P p, Q q, K r, 
S s, T t, U u, Yv,¥ w, X x, Y y, Z z. 

2. The Italic : A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, Eh, 
Ii, Jj, Kh, L I, Mm, N n, o, P p, Q q, 11 r, & s, T t, 
Uu, Vv, Ww,Xx, Yy, Zz. 

3. The Script: ©^*, 23 £ & c, <3U c/, $ e, 

<sT/ ^ @TX <§?;, J>/, Sei J2Y 

'@4t<n, <&?„, <P a, (SPfi, My, m*, <§^< 

&*<, <%/<*, W«. W^, %£*, <f f , %,, 

4. The Old English; 21 a, B b, € r, ?3D b, <E e, JT f , 
(3 g, § I), 1 i, % \ It k, % I, m m, # n, (B o, J) jj, <& q, 

ar,00,aU it, t) 13, to n>, X *, $ s> 2 h 

OBSERVATIONS. 
Obs. 1. — Language, in the primitive sense of the term, embraced only 
vocal expression, or human speech uttered by the mouth ; but, after letters 
were invented to represent articulate sounds, language became twofold, 



Obs. 2. — Letters claim to be a part of language, not merely because they 
represent articulate sounds, or spoken words, but because they form words 
of themselves, and have the power to become intelligible signs of thought, 
even independently of sound. Literature being the counterpart of speech, 
and more plenteous in words, the person who cannot read and write, is about 
as deficient in language, as the well instructed deaf mute : perhaps more 
bo ; for copiousness^ even of speech, results from letters. 

Obs. 3. — For the formation of words, letterf have some important advan- 
tages over articulate or syllabic sounds, thtJgh the latter communicate 
thought more expeditiously. The written symbols subdivide even the 
least parts of spoken language, which are syllables, reducing them to a few 



CHAR I.] ORTHOGRAPHY.— LETTERS.— THEIR NAMES. 19 

combinable elements ; and are themselves thereby reduced to a manageable 
number, — even to fewer than the elements which they represent. But the 
great advantage of recorded language is its permanence, with its unlimited 
power of circulation and transmission,. 

Obs. 4. — As a letter taken singly is commonly the sign of some elementary 
sound, and of nothing more, so the primary combinations of letters are often 
exhibited as mere notations of syllabic sounds, and not as having the signifi- 
cance of words. Silent letters occur only in the particular positions which 
custom or etymology has given them in certain words ; and, though mute, 
they are still named and classed according to tho powers usually pertaining to 
the same characters. 

Obs. 5. — It is suggested above, that a knowledge of the letters implies an 
acquaintance with their names, their classes, their powers, and their forms. 
Under these four heads, therefore, I shall briefly present the fact* 'which 
seem to be most worthy of the learner's attention at first, and shall reserve 
for the appendix a more particular account of these important elements. 

I. NAMES OE THE LETTERS. 

The names of the letters, as now commonly spoken 
and written in English, are A, Bee, Gee, Bee, E, Eff, Gee, 
Aitch, I, Jay, Kay, Ell, Em, En, 0, Pee, Kue, Ar, Ess, 
Tee, U. Vee, Double-u, Ex, Wy, Zee. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. — The names of the letters, as expressed in the modern languages, 
are mostly framed with reference to their powers, or sounds. Yet is there in 
English no letter of which the name is always identical with its power : for 
A, E, I, 0, and U, are the only letters which can name themselves, and all 
these have other sounds than those which their names express. The con- 
sonants are so manifestly insufficient to form any name of themselves alone, 
and so palpable is the difference between the nature and the name of each, 
that, did we not know how education has been trifled with, it would be hard 
to believe the assertion of Murray, that, " They are frequently confounded 
by writers on grammar !" 

Obs. 2. — Those letters which name themselves, take for their names those 
Bounds which they usually represent at the end of an accented syllable ; 
thus the names, A, E, I, 0, TJ, are uttered with the sounds given to the 
same letters in the first syllables of the other names, Abel, Enoch, Isaac, 
Obed, TTrim ; or in the first syllables of the common words, paper, penal t 
pilot, potent, pupil. The other letters, most of which can never be perfectly 
sounded alone, have names in which their powers are combined with other 
sounds more vocal ; as, Bee, Gee, Dee, — Ell, Em, En^ — Jay, Kay, Kue. But, 
in this respect, the terms Aitch and Double-u are irregular ; because they 
have no obvious reference to the powers of the letters thus named. 

Obs. 3. — The names of the letters, like those of the days of the week, are 
words of a very peculiar kind ; being nouns that are at once both proper and 
common. For, in respect to rank, character, and design, each letter is a 
thing strictly individual and identical — that is, it is ever one and the same ; 
yet, in an other respect, it is a comprehensive 6ort, embracing individuals 
both various and numberless. The name of a letter, therefore, should al- 
ways be written with a capital, as a proper noun, at least in the singular 
number ; and should form the plural regularly, as an ordinary appellative. 
Thus: (if we adopt, as we ought, the names now most generally used in 
English schools:) A, Aes : Bee, Bees; Cee, Cees ; Dee, Dees; E, Ees ; Ef, 
Efts ; Gee, Gees ; Aitch, Aitches ; I, Ies ; Jay, Jays ; Kay, Kays ; Ell, Ells ; 
Em, Ems-, En, Ens ; 0, Oes ; Pee, Pees ; Kue, Kites ; Ar, Ars ; Ess, Esses ; 
Tee, Tees; U, Ues ; Vee, Vees; Double-u, Double-ues; Ex, Exes ; Wy, Wies\ 
Zee, Zees. 

Obs. 4. — Letters, like all other things, must be learned and spoken of b$ 



20 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART I. 

their names ; nor can they be spoken of otherwise ; yet, as the simple char- 
acters arc better known and more easily exhibited than their written names, 
the former are often substituted for the latter, and are read as the words for 
which they are assumed. Hence the orthography of these words has hitherto 
been left too much to mere fancy or caprice ; no certain method of writing 
them has been generally inculcated ; so that many who think themselves 
well educated, would be puzzled to name on paper these simple elements of 
all learning. 

Obs. 5. — In many, if not in all languages, the five vowels, A, E, I, 0, U, 
name themselves ; but they name themselves differently to the ear, accord- 
ing to the different ways of uttering them in different languages. And as 
the name of a consonant necessarily requires one or more vowels, that also 
may be affected in the same manner. But, in every language, there should 
be a known way both of writing and of speaking every name in the series ; 
andthat, if there is nothing to hinder, should be made conformable to the 
genius of the language. For the names of the letters, in any language, are, 
in reality, words of thai language, and not likely to be very suitable for the 
same purpose in any other. 

Obs. 6. — The letters, once learned, may be used unnamed; and so are they 
used, always, except in oral spelling, or when some of their own number are 
to be particularized. The chief use of the written names is, to preserve and 
teach those which are svolcen; — to record current practice, in the hope of 
thereby preventing or lessening diversity: for, as Walker observes, "Th& 
names of the letters ought to have no diversity." — Principles, No. 483. 

Obs. 7. — The occasions, however, for naming the letters are so frequent, 
and lists of their names are given in so many books, that one cannot but 
marvel at the absence of these words from the columns of our dictionaries, 
and at the errors found elsewhere concerning them. So discrepant and er- 
roneous are the modes of writing them adopted by authors of spelling-books, 
and even by our best authorities — Walker, Webster, Murray, Churchill, W. 
Allen, and others — that any common school-boy would guess their forms 
quite as well. Even John Walker, in his " Principles of English Pronun- 
ciation," spells five or six of them wrong; commences all of them with small 
type, as reckoning them common nouns only ; fixes a gratuitous and silly 
" diversity'''' in five of them with his own hand ; and contradicts himself by 
preferring zed to izzard at first, and izzard to zed at last 1 

Obs. 8. — In every nation that is not totally illiterate, custom must have 
established for the letters a certain set of names, which are the only true ones, 
and which are of course to be preferred to such as are local, or obsolete, or 
unauthorized. Sundry examples of these objectionable sorts of names may 
indeed be cited from our school literature ; for, in the lapse of ages, usage 
has changed in a few instances, and, in their rash ignorance, some authors 
of A-Bee-Cee books have taught, in lieu of the right names, both archaisms 
and innovations at the same time; while many others, thinking the naming 
of letters a matter not worth their attention, have omitted it altogether. I 
have recorded above the true English names of all the letters, as they are 
now used, apd as they have been most fitly, and perhaps most generally, 
used thus far in the nineteenth century , and, if there could be in human 
works any thing unchangeable, I should wish, (with due deference to all 
echemers and fault-finders,) that these names mighj; remain the same and 
in good use forever. 

II. CLASSES OF THE LETTERS. 

The letters are divided into two general classes, vowels 
and consonants. 

A vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when 
uttered alone ; as, a, e, o. 

A consonant is a letter which cannot be perfectly ut- 
tered till joined to a vowel; as, b, c, d. 



CHAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY.— LETTERS.— THEIR CLASSES. 21 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 
\ All the other letters are consonants. 

Wor y is called a consonant when it precedes a vowel 
) heard in the same syllable ; as in wine, twine, whine ; ve, 
yet, youth: in all other cases, these letters are vowels; as 
in newly, dewy, eye-brow ; Yssel, Ystadt, yttria. 

CLASSES OF CONSONANTS. 

The consonants are divided into semivowels and mutes. 

A semivowel is a consonant which can he imperfectly sounded 
without a vowel, so that at the end of a syllable its sound 
may be protracted ; as, I, n, z, in at, an, az. 

A mute is a consonant which cannot be sounaed at all with- 
out a vowel, and which at the end of a syllable suddenly stops 
the breath ; as, k, p, t, in ak, ap, at. 

The semivowels are f, h, j, I, m, n, r, s, v, w, x, y, z, and c 
and g soft : but w or y at the end of a syllable, is a vowel ; 
and the sound of c, f, g, h, j, s, or x, can be protracted only as 
an aspirate, or strong breath. 

Four of the semivowels, — I, m, n, and r, — are termed liquids, 
on account of the fluency of their sounds ; and four others, — 
v, w, y, and z, — are likewise more vocal than the aspirates. 

The mutes are eight ; b, d, h, p, q, t, and c and g hard : three 
of these, — h, q, and c hard, — sound exactly alike : b, d, and g 
hard, stop the voice less suddenly than the rest. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. — The foregoing division of the letters is of very great antiquity, 
and, in respect to its principal features, sanctioned by almost universal 
authority. Aristotle, three hundred and thirty years before Christ, divided 
the Greek letters into vowels, semivowels, and mutes, and declared that no 
syllable could be formed without a vowel. Some modern writers, however, 
not well satisfied with this ancient distribution of the elements of learning, 
have contradicted the Stagirite, and divided both sounds and letters into 
new classes, with various new names. But, so far as I can see, they have 
thereby effected no importaut improvement ; and, since mere innovation is 
not in itself desirable in such cases, the old scheme is here still preferred. 

Obs. 2. — Dr. Bush, author of "the Philosophy of the Human Voice," re- 
solves the letters into " tonics, sulfonics, and atonies /" and avers that " con- 
sonants alone may form syllables." S. Kirkham too, though his Grammar 
teaches the old doctrine as given by Murray, prefers in his Elocution the 
instructions of Bush; disparages "the hoary division of the letters of our 
alphabet into vowels and consonants ;" affirms that, " A consonant is not only 
capable of being perfectly sounded without the help of a vowel, but, more- 
over, of forming, like a vowel, a separate syllable;''' 1 (p. 32;) commends 
Bush's new " division and classification of the elementary characters of our 
language, in accordance with their use in intonation;'''' puts an obsolete h 
into each of the Doctor's new names, giving to novelties _ the garb of an- 
tiques ; tells of "the Toniclcs, the Suotonicks, and the Atonicks ;" and, under 
these three heads, exhibits his thirty-five " elements" of the English tongue, 
by means of Italics and the splitting of syllables, thus ;— 



22 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PARTL 

1. "The Tonichs, twelve : A-te, a-rk, a-ll, a-t, ee-\, e-rr, e-nd, i-de, i-t, 
©-Id, oo-ze, cra-t. 

2. " The Subtonicks, fourteen: i?-oat, d-are, g-Ht, t)-ice, 2-one, y-e, w-o, 
th-at, a-s-ure, so-ng, l-ate, m-ate, n-ot, r-oe. 

3^ " The AtonicJcs, nine : JJ-p, a-£, lar-&, i-f, this, h-e, wA-at, th-in, bhwA." 
— Ku-kham's Elocution, pp. 32 and S3. 

Obs. 3. — As a mode of classing the letters of the alphabet, (which character 
is claimed for it,) this arrangement has no fitness whatever. As a classifica- 
tion of the sounds of the language, it is less objectionable, but still very 
faulty. Its vowel powers are too few, and yet the list contains two which 
are questionable : tor ou in out is a proper diphthong; and, according to 
Walker, e in err and e in end are sounded alike. The term " i-de," which is 
given for a "word," is not properly such; and the term "a-ilt" is an ill 
example of the hard g, because g before * is usually soft, like,;*. How the 
power of wh differs from the sounds of h and w united, I see not, though 
sundry modern authors affirm that it is simple and elementary. The asser- 
tion, that "consonants alone may form syllables," is a flat absurdity; it 
implies that, consonants are not consonants, but vowels ! 

Obs. 4. — In Comstock's Elocution, we have the following statement : " The 
elements, as well as the letters by which they are represented, are usually 
divided into two classes, Vowels and Consonants. A more philosophical 
division, however, is into three classes, Vowels, Subvowels, and Aspirates. 
The vowels are pure vocal sounds ; their number is fifteen : they are heard in 
ale, arm, all, an, eve, end, ^le, *n, old, lose, on, tube, up, fall, our. The sub- 
vocals have a vocality, but inferior to that of the vowels; their number is 
fourteen : they are heard in bow, day, gay, light, mind, no, song, roll, then, 
wile, wo, yoke, zone, azure. The aspirates are made with the whispering 
breath, and, consequently, have no vocality ; they are nine in number; and 
are heard in/ame, nut, X'ite, pit, sin, shade, tin, thin, what." — Pp. 19 and 20. 

Obs. 5. — This again is a classification of sounds, and not of the letters. To 
eall it " a more philosophical division" of the letters, is a ridiculous absurdity. 
For, of the twenty-six letters, it throws out four, — e, j, q, and x, — because 
their sounds may be otherwise expressed ; while ten repetitions of the same 
letter with a different sound, and six combinations of different letters, mak- 
ing sixteen unalphabetical items, are allowed to swell the number of " ele- 
ments" to thirty-eight : ou and wh being improperly reckoned among them. 
The definitions, too, are each of them inconsistent with the fact that all these 
elements may be either whispered or spoken aloud, at pleasure. 

Obs. 6. — The elementary sounds of the language being more numerous 
than the letters of the alphabet, and not very philosophically distributed 
among them, no accurate classification of either species can be exactly adapted 
to the other ; and to divide the powers of the letters into one set of classes, 
and then divide the letters themselves, with reference to their powers, into 
an other set, as a few late writers have done, seems to be neither free from 
objection, nor very necessaryto che purposes of instruction. Such is the 
scheme in Covell's "Digest," and also in Greene's "Elements of English 
Grammar ;" where the sounds used in English, being reckoned forty by the 
latter author, and forty-one by the former, are divided into " Vocals, Sub- 
vocals, and Aspirates," with an additional class of" Cognates," or " Correl- 
atives;" and then the letters are classed as "vowels and consonants ;" with 
the suggestion that consonants are either " subvocals" or " aspirates." 

Obs. 7. — By way of definition, Covell says, " Vocals consist of pure voica 
only. Subvocals consist of voice and breath united. Aspirates consist oipure 
breath only. A vowel is a letter used to represent a vocal. A consonant is a 
letter used to represent a subvocal or aspirate." — Pp. 11 and 16. Greene 
says, " The vocals consist ©f pure tone only. The subvocals consist of tone 
united with breath. The aspirates consist of pure breath only. Those letters 
which represent vocals are called vowels. Those letters which represent sub- 
vocals and aspirates are called consonants." — Pp. 2 and 5. Now, since all the 
elements of words, except silent letters, may be whispered, and whispering 
consists in the articulation " of pure breath only" may not a little whispering 
show the unfitness of all these definitions ? 



CHAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY.— LETTERS.— THEIR CLASSES. 23 

Obs. 8. — Greene says, a By what rule such sounds as,/", s, or c soft, which 
Lave no vocality whatever, can be called semivowels, it is impossible to see." 
— Elements of E. Gram., p. 3. This remark must have originated in some 
wrong notion of what vocality is. Again, it is forgotten that not " sounds," 
out letters, are by the definition made semivowels. If there is any error in 
regarding a hiss as half a voice, or in calling u f, s, or c soft" a semivowel, 
Aristotle himself is answerable lor it, as may be seen in the twentieth chap- 
ter of his Poetics. But S. S. Greene contradicts the old philosopher not 
only by denying all vocality to some of his semivowels, but also by finding 
the nature o£ u subwcals" in both of his examples of &mute; namely in g 
hard and d, or the corresponding Greek letters. See " Table of Elementary 
Sounds," in Greene's Elements, edition of 1853 ; wherein our sibilant s is 
blunderingly stereotyped as being an element of two or three different sorts, 
and as having v for its " correlative." 

Obs. 9. — By an improper recognition of sounds for letters, and of combi- 
nations for simples, some authors absurdly reckon the consonants alone to be 
more numerous than are all the alphabetic characters together. Thus the 
Rev. Dr. Mandeville : " A consonant is a letter which, as the name implies, 
cannot be sounded without the aid of a vowel. The consonants are b, c, d, 
f, g, h, i, j, Tc, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z ; to which must be added ih, 
ch, sh, zh, wh, ng: being plainly elementary sounds, and as such belonging to 
the alphabet, though not formally included in it." — Course of Beading, p. 13. 

Obs. 10. — The distinction between vowels and consonants is generally 
obvious and easy enough j and yet, in reference to certain sounds or letters, 
when not pure, but combined, it is often very difficult and arbitrary. Somo 
few of our grammarians have long taught that w and y, as well as a, e, i, o, 
n, are always vowels. The most common doctrine is, that w and y are some- 
times vowels and sometimes consonants, and that a, e, i, o, and u, are always 
vowels. But, the sound of initial w being thought to be sometimes heard in 
u, likewise in o, and the sound of initial y sometimes in e, or i, or u, some 
writers have recognized one ; some, two ; some, three ; and a few, all four, 
of these letters, as well as w and y, as being sometimes consonants ; thus 
making a vast diver i y of teaching concerning the classification of the six — ■ 
a diversity which alto extends itself equally into each of the new schemes 
of elements remarked upon above. 

Obs. 11. — Dr. Lowth, and his improver, Churchill, also Sheridan, and his 
copier, Jones, represent a, e, i, o, u, w, and y as being invariably vowels, and 
as having no sounds peculiar to consonants. This opinion makes easy and 
simple the division ot the letters, but it greatly swells the number of diph- 
thongs, shows not why the initial w or ^follows a vowel without hiatus, and 
accounts not for the use of a, in preference to an, before nouns beginning 
with w or y : as, a wall, a yard ; not an wall, an yard. 

Obs. 12. — Dr. Webster, in his great American Dictionary, says, u Tia 
sometimes used as a consonant." — lntrod., p. lxxviii. Concerning a, e, i, o, «, 
and w, he appears to agree with Lowth, and the others above named. 
Pisher, a London grammarian of the last century, treated w as being always 
a consonant, and y as being sometimes such. Brightland, Johnson, Murr*y, 
"Walker, Ward Wells, Worcester, and others, — a majority of those who treat 
of the letters, — maintain the division which I have adopted above. 

Obs. 13. — Dr. Mandevillo says, " /, y, and w, are sometimes consonants." 
— Course of Reading, p. 9. Dr. Pinneo, uttering a strange solecism, and am- 
biguity of construction, says, " All the letters of the alphabet, except the 
vowels, and sometimes i, u, w, and y, are consonants." — Analytical Gram., 
Stereotype Edition of 1853, p. 7. L. T. Covell says, " All, except a, may be 
consonants." — Digest of E. Gram., p. 16. 

Obs. 14. — Sheridan and Jones divide the consonants into mutes and semi- 
vowels, then subdivide the mutes into "pure andj,mpure," and the semi- 
vowels into " vocal and aspirated." In lieu of this, some, among whom are 
Herries and Bickuell, divide the consonants into three sorts, "half vowels, 
aspirates, and mutes." Many divide them into labials, dentals, Unguals, pala- 
tals, and nasals ; classes which refer to the lips, teeth, tongue, palate, and 
nose, a3 the effective organs of their utterance. 



24 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART I. 

Obs. 15. — Certain consonants or consonantal sounds are often distinguished 
in pairs, by way of contrast with each other, the one being called fiat and 
the other sharp : as, b and_p / d and t ; g hard and h ; j and ch ; v and/"; th 
flat and th sharp ; z and sharp s ; zh and sh. These, with reference to each 
other, are sometimes termed correlatives or cognates. 

III. POWERS OF THE LETTERS. 

The poiuers of the letters are properly those element- 
ary sounds which their figures are used to represent ; 
but letters formed into words, are capable of communi- 
cating thought independently of sound. 

The vowel sounds which form the basis of the English 
language, and which ought therefore to be perfectly 
familiar to every one who speaks it, are those which are 
heard at the beginning of the words, ate, at, ah, all, eel, 
ell, isle, ill, old, on, ooze, use, us, and that of u in bull. 

In the formation of words or syllables, some of these 
fourteen primary sounds may be joined together, as. in 
ay, oil, out, owl ; and all of them may be preceded or 
followed by certain motions and positions of the lips 
and tongue, which will severally convert them into 
other terms in speech. Thus the same essential sounds 
may be changed into a new series of words by an/; as, 
fate, fat, far, fall, feel, fell, file, fill, fold, fond, fool, fuse, 
fuss, fall. Again, into as many more with a p ; as, pate, 
pat, par, pall, peel, pell, pile, pill, pole, pond, pool, pule, 
purl, pull. 

The simple consonant sounds in English are twenty- 
two : they are marked by b, d,fg hard, h, h, I, m, n, ng, 
p, r, s, sh, t, th sharp, th flat, v, w, y, z, and zh. But zh 
is written only to show the sound of other letters ; as of 
s in pleasure, or z in azure. 

All these sounds are heard distinctly in the following 
words: buy, die, fie, guy, high, hie, lie, my, nigh, eying, 
pie, rye, sigh, shy, tie, thigh, thy, vie, we, ye, zebra, seizure. 
Again : most of them may be repeated in the same 
word, if not in the same syllable ; as in bibber, diddle^ 
fifty, giggle, high-hung, cackle, lily, mimic, ninny, singing^ 
pippin, mirror, hissest, flesh-brush, tittle, iliinketh, thither, 
vivid, witwal, union, dizzies, vision. 

The possible combinations and mutations of the 
twenty-six letters of our alphabet, are many millions of 
millions. But those clusters which are unpronouneo- 



CHAP. I.] ORTHOGRAPHY.— LETTERS.--THEIR POWERS. 25 

able, are useless. Of such as may be easily tittered, 
there are more than enough for all the purposes of use- 
ful writing, or the recording of speech. 

Thus it is, that from principles so few and simple as 
about six or seven and thirty plain elementary sounds, 
represented by characters still fewer, we derive such a 
variety of oral and written signs, as may suffice to ex- 
plain or record all the sentiments and transactions of all 
men in all ages. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Obs. 1. — Different vowel sounds are produced by opening the mouth dif- 
ferently, and placing the tongue ia a peculiar manner for each ; but the 
voice may vary in loudness, pitch, or time, and still utter the same vowel 
power. 

Obs. 2. — Each of the vowel sounds may be variously expressed by letters. 
About half of them are sometimes words : the rest are seldom, if ever, used 
alone even to form syllables. But the reader may easily learn to utter them 
all, separately, according to the foregoing series. Let us note them as 
plainly as possible : eigh, a, ah, awe, eh, e, eye, I, oh, 5, oo, yew, u, u. 
Thu3 the eight long sounds, eigh, ah, awe, eh, eye, oh, ooh, yew, are, or may 
be words ; but the six less vocal, called the short vowel sounds, as in at, et, 
it, ot, ut, ]>ut, are commonly heard only in connexion with consonants ; ex- 
cept the hrst, which is perhaps the most frequent sound of the vowel A or 
a — a sound sometimes given to the word a, perhaps most generally ; as in 
the phrase, " twice a day." 

Obs. 3. — With us, the consonants J and X represent, not simple, but com- 
plex sounds : hence they are never doubled. J is equivalent to dzh ; and 
X, either to ks or to gz. The foi'mer ends no English word, and the latter 
begins none. To the initial X of foreign words, we always give the simple 
Bound of Z ; as in Xerxes, xebec. 

Obs. 4. — The consonants C and Q have no sounds peculiar to themselves. 
Q has always the power of k, and is constantly followed by u and some 
vowel or two more in the same syllable ; as in quake, quest, quit, quoit. C is 
hard, like k, before a, o, and u ; and soft, like s, before e, i, and y : thus the 
syllables ca, ce, ci, co, cu, cy, are pronounced ka, se, si, ho, Tcu, sy. S before 
c preserves the former sound, but coalesces with the latter ; hence the sylla- 
bles, sea, see, sci, sco, scu, scy, are sounded ska, se, si, sko, sku, sy. Ce and ci 
have sometimes the sound of sh ; as in ocean, social. Ch commonly repre- 
sents the sound of tsh ; as in church. 

Obs. 5. — G, as well as C, ha3 different sounds before different vowels. G> 
is always hard, or guttural, before a, o, and it,; and generally soft, like,/, be- 
fore e, i, or y : thus the syllables, ga, ge, gi, go, gu, gy, are pronounced ga } 
je,ji,go,gu,jy. 

Obs. 6. — The imperfections of the English alphabet have been the subject 
of much comment, and sundry schemes for its reformation have successively 
appeared and disappeared without effecting the purpose of any one of their 
authors. It has been thought that there ought to be one character, and only 
one, for each simple sound in the language ; but, in attempting to count the 
several elementary sounds which we use, our orthoepists have arrived at a 
remarkable diversity of conclusions. Bicknell, copying Martin's Physico- 
Grammatical Essay, says, "The simple sounds," originally necessary to 
speech, " were in no wise to be reckoned of any certain number : by the 
first men they were determined to no more than ten, as some suppose ; as 
others, fifteen or twenty ; it is however certain that mankind in general 
never exceed twenty simple sounds ; and of these only Jive are reckoned strictly 
such." — BickneWs Gram., Part ii, p. 4. 

Obs, 7. — The number of oral elements is differently reckoned by our 

2 



26 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAET I. 

critics, because they do not agree among themselves concerning the identity 
or the simplicity, the sameness or the singleness, of some of the sounds in 
question ; and also because it is the practice of all, or nearly all, to admit as 
elementary some sounds which differ from each other only in length or short- 
ness, and some which are not conceived to be entirely simple in themselves. 
The circumstances of the case seem to make it impossible to find out for a 
certainty what would be a perfect alphabet for our tongue. 

Obs. 8. — Sheridan, taking i and u for diphthongs, % for " no letter," and 
the power of h for no soundj made the elements of hia oratory twenty-eight. 
Jones followed him implicitly, saying, " The number of simple sounds in 
our tongue is twenty-eight, 9 Vowels, and 19 Consonants. H is no letter, but 
merely a mark of aspiration." — Prosodial Gram., p. xiv. Bolles says, " The 
number of simple vowel and consonant sounds in our tongue is twenty- 
eight, and one pure aspiration h, making in all twenty-nine." — Octavo Diet., 
Introd., p. 9. Walker recognized several more ; but I know not whether he 
has anywhere told us how many there are. 

Obs. 9. — Lindley Murray enumerates. at first thirty-six well known sounds, 
and the same thirty-six that are given in the main text above ; but he after- 
wards, contradicting certain teachings of his Spelling-Book, acknowledges 
one more, making thirty-seven — the third sound of e — "An obscure and 
scarcely perceptible sound : as in open, lucre, participle.'' 1 — Gram., p. 11. 
Comstock, who does not admit the obscure e, says, " There are thirty-eight 
elements in the English alphabet, and * * * a deficiency of twelve Utters." 
—Elocution, p. 19. Wells, deducting C, Q, and X, says, " The remaining 
twenty-three letters are employed to represent about forty elementary sounds." 
School Gram., 113th Th., p. 42. His first edition stated the number of 
sounds to be "forty-one."— -P. 36. 

Obs. 10. — For the sake of the general principle, which we always regard 
in writing, a principle of universal grammar, as old at least as the writings 
of Aristotle, that there can be no syllable without a vowel, or without soma 
vowel power, I am inclined to teach, with Brightland, Dr. Johnson, L. Mur- 
ray, and others, that, in English, as in French, there is given to the vowel 0, 
in some unaccented syllables a certain very obscure sound, which approaches, 
but amounts not to an absolute suppression, though it is commonly so re- 

farded by the writers of our dictionaries. See Murray's examples above, 
fthe <?in "open" or able be supposed to have some faint sound, the oral 
elements of our language may be reckoned thirty-seven. 

Obs. 11. — It is also a general principle, necessarily following from this, 
that, where the vowel of a syllable is suppressed or left entirely mute, any 
part which remains, of such syllable, falls to another vowel, and becomes 
part of another syllable: thus Cowper, in the phrase " ' Tis desperate ," re- 
duces five syllables to three. But Wells, in arguing against the common 
definition of a consonant, says, " We have many syllables in which the 
vowel, though written, is not heard at all in pronunciation, as in the words 
taken, burdened, which are pronounced tah-n, burd-nd" And he adds, 
" There are instances, also, in which a consonant is sounded as a distinct syl- 
lable, without the use even of a written vowel, as in the words chas-m, 
rhyth-m" — School Gram., p. 31. Here a very excellent teacher evidently in- 
culcates error ; for chasm, rhythm, or even chasmed, is only a monosyllable, and 
to call a consonant a syllable, is a contradiction in terms. 



IV. FORMS OF THE LETTERS. 

In the English language, the Roman characters are 
generally employed; sometimes, the Italic; and occa- 
sionally, the QD15 (Snigiisf). In writing, we use the 



CHAP, l] orthography.— letters.— their forms. 27 

The letters have severally two forms, by which they 
are distinguished as capitals and small letters. 

Small letters constitute the body of every work ; and 
capitals are used for the sake of eminence and distinction, 

RULES FOR TEE USE OF CAPITALS 

RULE I. TITLES OF BOOKS. 

The titles of hooks, and the heads of their principal divisions, 
should be printed in capitals. When hooks are merely men- 
tioned, the chief words in their titles begin with capitals, and 
the other letters are small ; as, " Pope's Essay on Man." 

RULE II. FIRST WORDS. 

The first word of every distinct sentence, or of any clause 
separately numbered or paragraphed, should begin with a 
capital. 

RUI III. NAMES OF DEITY. 

All names of the Deity should begin with capitals ; as, God, 
Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, 

RULE IV. PROPER NAMES. 

Titles of office or honour, and proper names of every de- 
scription, should begin with capitals; as, Chief Justice Hale, 
William, London, the Park, the Albion, the Spectator, the 
Thames. 

RULE V. OBJECTS PERSONIFIED. 

The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea 
strictly individual, should begin with a capital ; as, 

" Come, gentle Spring, ethereal mildness, come. 

RULE VI. WORDS DERIVED. 

Words derived from proper names of persons or places, 
should begin with capitals ; as, Newtonian, Grecian, Roman. 

RULE VII. 1 AND O. 

The words /and should always be capitals; as, " Out of 
the depths have /cried unto thee Lord." — Psalms, cxxx, 1. 

RULE VIII. IN POETRY. 

Every line in poetry, except what is regarded as making 
but one verse with the line preceding, should begin with a 
capital ; as, 

" Our sons their fathers' failing language see, 
And such as Chaucer is, shall Dryden be." — Pope. 



28 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART I. 

RULE IX. EXAMPLES, ETC. 

A full example, a distinct speech, or a direct quotation, 
should begin with a capital ; as, " Remember this maxim : 
* Know thy self.'" — "Virgil says, 'Labour conquers all things.'" 



RULE X. CHIEF WORDS. 



Other words of particular importance, and such as denote 
the principal subjects of discourse, may be distinguished by 
capitals. Proper names frequently have capitals throughout. 



CHAPTER II.— OF SYLLABLES. 

A Syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one 
sound, and is either a word or a part of a word ; as, a 7 
an, ant. 

In every word there are as many syllables as there 
are distinct sounds ; as, gram-ma ri-an. 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable; a 
word of two syllables, a dissyllable / a word of three syl- 
lables, a trissyllable ; and a word of four or more sylla- 
bles, a polysyllable. 

DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. 

A diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable; as, 
ea in beat, ou in sound. 

A proper diphthong, is a diphthong in whicb bo f H the 
vowels are sounded ; as, oi in voice. 

An improper diphthong, is a diphthong in which only 
one of the vowels is sounded ; as, oa in loaf. 

A triphthong is three vowels joined in one syllable ; 
as, eau in beau, iew in view. 

A proper triphthong, is a triphthong in which all the 
vowels are sounded ; as, uoy in buoy. 

An improper triphthong, is a triphthong in which only 
one or two of the vowels are sounded ; as, eau in beauty, 
iou in anxious. 

SYLLABICATION. 

In dividing words into syllables, we are to be directed 
chiefly by the ear ; it may however be proper to ob- 
©#rve, as far as practicable, the following rules. 



CHAP. III.] ORTHOGRAPHY — WORDS. 29 

RULE I. CONSONANTS. 

Consonants should generally be joined to the vowels of 
diphthongs which they modify in utterance ; as, ap-os-iol-i-cal, 

RULE II. VOWELS. 

Two vowels, coming together, if they make not a diphthong, 
must be parted in dividing the syllables ; as, a-e-ri-al. 

RULE III. TERMINATIONS. 

Derivative and grammatical terminations should generally 
be separated from the radical words to which they have been 
added ; as, harm-less, great-ly, con-nect-ed. 

RULE IV. PREFIXES. 

Prefixes in general form separate syllables ; as, mis-place, 
out-ride, up-Uft : but if their own primitive meaning be disre- 
garded, the case may be otherwise ; thus re-create and rec-reate 
are words of different import. 

RULE V. COMPOUNDS. 

Compounds, when divided, should be divided into the simple 
words which compose them ; as, no-where. 

RULE VI. LINES FULL. 

At the end of a line, a word may be divided, if necessary ; 
but a syllabic must never be broken. 



CHAPTER in.— OF WOKDS. 

A Word is one or more syllables spoken or written 
as the sign of some idea, or of some manner of thought. 

SPECIES AND FIGUKE OF WORDS. 

Words are distinguished as primitive or derivative, and 
as simple or compound. The former division is called 
their species ; the latter, their figure. 

A primitive word is one that is not formed from any 
simpler word in the language ; as, harm, great, connect. 

A derivative word is one that is formed from some 
simpler word in the language ; as, harmless, greatly ', con- 
nected, disconnect^ unconnected. 



30 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART L 

A simple word is one that is not compounded, not 
composed of other words ; as, watch, man, never, the, less. 

A compound word is one that is composed of two or 
more simple words ; as, watchman, nevertheless. 

Permanent compounds are consolidated ; as, book- 
seller, schoolmaster : others, which may be called tempo- 
rary compounds, are formed by the hyphen ; as, glass- 
hoicse, negro -merchant. 

RULES FOR TEE FIGURE OF WORDS. 
RULE I. COMPOUNDS. 

Words regularly or analogically united, and commonly 
known as forming a compound, should never be needlessly 
broken apart. 

RULE II. SIMPLES. 

When the simple words would only form a regular phrase, 
of the same meaning, the compounding of any of them ought 
to be avoided. 

RULE III. THE SENSE. 

Words otherwise liable to be misunderstood, must be joined 
together or written separately, as the sense and construction 
may happen to require. 

RULE IV. ELLIPSES. 

When two or more compounds are connected in one sen- 
tence, none of them should be split to make an ellipsis of half 
a word. 

RULE V. THE HYPHEN. 

When the parts of a compound do not fully coalesce, as to- 
day, to-night, to-morrow ; or when each retains its original 
accent, so that the compound has more than one, or one that 
is movable, as first-born, hanger-on, laughter-loving ^ the hyphen 
chould be inserted between them. 

RULE VI. NO HYPHEN. 

When a compound has but one accented syllable in pro- 
nunciation, as watchword, statesman, gentleman, and the parts 
are such as admit of a complete coalescence, no hyphen should 
be inserted between them. 



CHAP, IV.] ORTHOGRAPHY— SPELLING. 31 

CHAPTER IV.— OF SPELLING-. 

Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper 
letters. 

Obs. — This important art is to be acquired rather by means of the spelling- 
book or dictionary, and by observation in reading, than by the study of 
written rules. The orthography of our language is attended with much un- 
certainty and perplexity: many words are variously spelled by the best 
scholars, and many others are not usually written according to the analogy 
of similar words. But to be ignorant of the orthography of such words as 
are uniformly spelled and frequently used, is justly considered disgraceful. 
The following rules may prevent some embarrassment, and thus be of serv- 
ice to those who wish to be accurate. 

BULBS FOR SPELLING. 

RULE I. FINAL F, L, OR S. 

Monosyllables ending in /, I, or s, preceded by a single 
vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass : ex- 
cept three in f—clef, if, of; four in I — but, nut, sal, sol ; and 
eleven in s — as, gas, has, was, yes, is, his, this, us, thus, pus. 

RULE II. OTHER FINALS. 

Words ending in any other consonant than/ I, or s, do not 
double the final letter : except abb, ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, err, 
burr, purr, yarr, butt, buzz, fuzz, and some proper names. 

RULE III. DOUBLING. 

Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, when 
they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, 
or by a vowel after qu, double their final consonant before an 
additional syllable that begins with a vowel : as, rob, robber ; 
permit, permitting ; acquit, acquittal, acquitting. 

ExCo — X final, being equivalent to ks, is never doubled. 

RULE IV. NO DOUBLING. 

A final consonant, when it is not preceded by a single 
vowel, or when the accent is not on the last syllable, should 
remain single before an additional syllable: as, toil, toiling ; 
visit, visited ; general, generalize. 

Exc. — But I and s final are usually doubled, (though per- 
haps improperly,) when the last syllable is not accented : as, 
travel, traveller ; bias, biassed. 

RULE V. RETAINING. 

Words ending with any double letter, preserve it double 



32 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART I. 

before any additional termination, not beginning with the same 
letter ; as in the following derivatives : seeing, blissful, oddly \ 
hilly, stiffness, illness, smallness, carelessness, agreement, agree- 
able. 

Exc. — The irregular words, fled, sold, told, dwelt, spelt, spilt, 
shalt, wilt, blest, past, and the derivatives from the word 
pontiff, are exceptions to this rule. 

RULE VI. FINAL E. 

The final e mute of a primitive word, is generally omitted 
before an additional termination beginning with a vowel : as, 
rate, ratable ; force, forcible ; rave, raving ; eye, eying. 

Exc. — Words ending in ce or ge, retain the e before able or 
ous, to preserve the soft sounds of c and g : as, peace, peace- 
able ; change, changeable ; outrage, outrageous. 

RULE VII. FINAL E. 

The final e of a primitive word, is generally retained before 
an additional termination beginning with a consonant : as, pale, 
paleness; lodge, lodgement. 

Exc. — When the e is preceded by a vowel, it is sometimes 
omitted; as, true, truly; aive, awful: and sometimes retained ; 
as, rue, rueful; shoe, shoeless. 

RULE VIII. FINAL Y. 

The final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a conso- 
nant, is changed into i before an additional termination : as, 
merry, merrier, merriest, merrily, merriment ; pity, pitied, pities, 
pitiest, pitiless, pitiful, pitiable. 

Exc. — Before ing, y is retained to prevent the doubling of 
i ; as, pity, pitying, Words ending in ie, dropping the e by 
Rule 6th, change i into y, for the same reason ; as, die, dying. 

Obs. — When a vowel precedes, y should not he changed : as, day, days; 
valley, valleys ; money, moneys ; monkey, monkeys. 

RULE IX. COMPOUNDS. 

Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple 
words which compose them ; as, hereof, wherein, horseman, re~ 
call, uphill, shellfish. 

Exc. — In permanent compounds, the words full and all drop 
one /; as, handful, careful, always, withal : in others, they re- 
tain both; as, full-eyed, all-wise, save-all. 

Obs.— Other words ending- in II, sometimes improperly drop one I, when 
taken into composition ; as, miscal, downJiil. This excision is reprehensible, 
because it is contrary to general analogy, and because both letters are neces- 
sary to preserve the sound, and show the derivation of the compound. 



CHAP. V.] ORTHOGRAPHY.— QUESTIONS. 33 

"Where is the consistency of writing, recall, miscal, — inthrall, betTiral, — wind- 
fall, dr/wnfal,- — laystall, ihumbstal, — waterfall, overfal, — molehill, dunahil, — ■ 
windmill, twibil, — clodpoll, enrol ? [See Johnson's Dictionary, first Ameri- 
can ed. 4to.] 



CHAPTER Y.— EXAMINATION. 



LESSON I. — GENERAL DIVISION. 



What is English Grammar ? 
How is it divided ? 
Of what does Orthography treat? 
Of what does Etymology treat ? 
Of what does Syntax treat ? 
Of what does Prosody treat ? 

QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. 

LESSON II. — LETTERS. 

Of what does Orthography treat ? 

What is a Letter ? 

"What is an elementary sound of a word? 

What name is given to the sound of a letter ? and what epithet, to a lettef 

not sounded ? 
How many letters are there in English ? and how many sounds do they 

represent ? 
In what does a knowledge of the letters consist? 
What variety is noticed in letters that are always the same ? 
What different sorts of types, or letters, are used in English ? 
What are the names of the letters in English? 
Which of the letters name themselves ? and which do not ? 
What are the names of all in both numbers, singular and plural? 

LESSON HI. — CLASSES OF LETTERS. 

Into what general classes are the letters divided? 

What is a vowel ? 

What is a consonant ? 

What letters are vowels ? and what, consonants ? 

When are w and y consonants ? and when vowels ? 

How are the consonants divided ? 

What is a semivowel? 

What is a mute ? 

What letters are semivowels? and which of these are aspirates! 

What letters are called liquids, and why ? 

How many and which are the letters reckoned mutes ? 

LESSON IV. — POWERS, OR SOUNDS. 

What is meant, when we speak of " the powers of the letters ?" 
In what series of short words are heard our chief vowel sounds t 
How may these sounds be modified to form words or syllables? 
Can you form a word from each by means of any? 
Will you form an other such series with s.pf 
How many and what are the consonant sounds in English ? 
In what series of words may all these sounds be heard ? 
In what series of "words is each of them heard more than onoe 2 
Do our letters admit of combinations enough ? 
What do we derive from these elements of language? 

3* 



84 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PARTI, 

LESSON V. — FOKMS OF THE LETTERS. 

"What is said of the employment of the several styles of letters in English ? 

What distinction of form do we make in each of the letters ? 

What is said of small letters ? and why are capitals used ? 

How many rules for capitals are given? and what are their heads? 

What says Eule 1st of titles of boohs f — Rule 2d of first words ? — Rule 3d of 
names of Deity? — Rule 4th of proper names? — Rule 5th of objects per soni* 
Jied t — Rule 6th of words derived ? — Rule 7th of / and O ? — Rule 8th of 
foetry? — Rule 9th of examples, &c. ? — Rule 10th of chief 'words? 

LESSON VI. — SYLLABLES. 

What is a syllable ? 

Can the syllables of a word be perceived by the ear ? 

What is a word of one syllable called?— a word of two? — of three? — of four 
or more ? 

What is a diphthong ? 

What is a proper diphthong ? — an improper diphthong ? 

What is a triphthong ? 

What is a proper triphthong ? — an improper triphthong ? 

What chiefly directs us in dividing words into syllables ? 

How many rules of syllabication are given ? and what are their heads? 

What says Rule 1st of consonants ? — Rule 2d of vowels ? — Rule 3d of termina- 
tions? — Rule 4th of prefixes? — Rule 5th of compounds? — Rule 6th of lines 
full? 

LESSON VII. — WORDS. 

What is a word ? 

How are words distinguished in regard to species and figure ? 

What is a primitive word 1 

What is a derivative word ? 

What is a simple word ? 

What is a compound word? 

How do permanent compounds differ from others? 

How many are the rules for the figure of words? and what, their heads ? „ 

What says Rule 1st of compounds ? — Rule 2d of simples f— Rule 3d of th* 

sense ? — Rule 4th of ellipses ? — Rule 5th of tlie hyphen ? — Rule 6th of using 

no hyphen? 



LESSON Vm. — SPELLING. 

What is spelling ? 

How is this art to be acquired ? 

How many rules for spelling are there ? and what are their heads ? 

What says Rule 1st of final f I, or s? — Rule 2d of other finals ? — Rule 3d of 
the doubling of consonants ? — Rule 4th against the doubling of consonants I 
— Rule 5th of retaining ?— Rule 6th of finale?— Rule 7th of final 4?— 
Rule 8th of 'final y ? — Rule 9th of compounds ? 



CHAPTER VI.— FOE WRITING. 

EXERCISES IN ORTHOGRAPHY. 

^W m [Spelling is to be taught by example, rather than by rule. For oral exerciser 
in this branch of learning, a spelling-book or vocabulary should be employed. The 
following examples of false orthography are inserted, that they may be corrected by 
the pupil in writing. They are selected with direct reference to the rules; which 
are at first indicated by figures. For it is evident, that exercises of this kind, without 
express rules for their correction, would rather perplex than instruct the learner; 
and that his ability to correct them without reference to the rules, must presuppose 
»uch knowledge as would render them useless. 



CHAP. VI.] ORTHOGRAPHY. — EXERCISES. 35 

EXERCISE I.— CAPITALS. 

1. The pedant quoted Johnson's dictionary of the english 
language, Gregory's dictionary of arts and sciences, Crabb's 
english synonymes, Walker's key to the pronunciation of pro- 
per names, Sheridan's rhetorical grammar, and the diversions 
of purley. 

2. gratitude is a delightful emotion, the grateful heart at 
once performs its duty and endears itself to others. 

3. What madness and folly, to deny the great first cause ! 
Shall mortal man presume against his maker 1 shall he not 
fear the omnipotent ? shall he not reverence the everlasting 
one 1 — c The fear of the lord is the beginning of wisdom.' 

4. xerxes the great, emperor of persia, united the medes, 
persians, bactrians, lydians, assyrians, hyrcanians, and many 
other nations, in an expedition against greece. 

5. I observed that, when the votaries of religion were led 
aside, she commonly recalled them by her emissary conscience, 
before habit had time to enchain them. 

6. Hercules is said to have killed the nemean lion, the ery- 
manthian boar, the lernean serpent, and the stymphalian 
birds. The christian religion has brought all mythologic stories 
and milesian fables into disrepute. 

7. i live as i did, i think as i d»id, i love you as i did ; but 
all these are to no purpose ; the world will not live, think, or 
love as i do. — o wretched prince ! o cruel reverse of fortune ! 
o father Micipsa ! 

8. are these thy views 1 proceed, illustrious youth, 
and virtue guard thee to'the throne of truth ! 

9. Those who pretend to love peace, should remember this 
maxim : " it is the second blow that makes the battle," 

EXERCISE II.— CAPITALS. 

'time and i will challenge any other two,' said philip. — - 
'thus,' said diogenes, 'do i trample on the pride of plato.' — ■ 
' true,' replied plato ; ' but is it not with the greater pride of 
diogenes V 

the father in a transport of joy, burst into the following 
Words : ' o excellent scipio ! heaven has given thee more than 
human virtue ! o glorious leader ! o wondrous youth V 

epaminondas, the theban general, was remarkable for his 
love of truth, he never told a lie, even in jest. 

and pharaoh said to Joseph, " say to thy brethren, ' do this— 
lade your beasts, and go to the land of canaan,' " 



B6 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART I. 

who is she that, with graceful steps and a lively air, trips 
over yonder plain % her name is health : she is the daughter of 
exercise and temperance. 

to the penitent sinner, a mediator and intercessor with the 
sovereign of the universe, appear comfortable names. 

the murder of abel, the curse and rejection of cain, and the 
birth and adoption of seth, are almost the only events related 
of the immediate family of adam, after his fall. 

on what foundation stands the warrior's pride, 
how just his hopes, let Swedish charles decide. 

in every leaf that trembles to the breeze, 
i hear the voice of god among the trees. 

EXERCISE III.— SYLLABLES. 

1. Correct Murray's division of the following words : " ci- 
vil, co-lour, co-py, da-mask, do-zen, e-ver, fea-ther, ga-ther, 
hea-ven, le-mon, mea-dow, ne-ver, o-range, pu-nish, ro-bin, 
sho-vel, ti-mid, whi-ther; — be-ne-fit, ca-nis-ter, ge-ne-rous, 
le-ve-ret, li-be-ral, se-ve-ral ; — mi-se-ra-ble, to-le-ra-ble, e-pi-de- 
mic, pa-ra-ly-tie ; — a-ca-de-mi-cal, cha-rac-te-ris-tic, ex-pe-ri- 
ment-al." — Murray 's Spelling-Booh. 

2. Correct Webster's division of the following words : 
" oy-er, fol-io, gen-ial, gen-ius, jun-ior, sa-tiate, vi-tiate ; — am- 
bro-sia, par-hel-ion, con-ven-ient, in-gen-ious, om-nis-cience, 
pe-cul-iar, so-cia-ble, par-tial-i-ty, pe-cun-ia-ry ; — an-nun-ciate, 

h 

sub-stan-tiate." — Webster's Spelling-Books. 

3. Correct Cobb's division ot the following words : " dres- 
ser, has-ty, pas-try, sei-zure, rol-ler, jes-ter, wea-ver, vam per, 
han-dy, dros-sy, glos-sy, mo-ver, mo-ving, oo-zy, ful-ler, trus-ty, 
weigh-ty, noi-sy, drow-sy, swar-thy." — Cobb's Standard Spell- 
ing-Book. And these : " eas-tern, full-y, pull-et, rill-et, scan-ty, 
nee-dy." — Webster. Also these : " woo-dy, stor-my, clou-dy, 
ex-al-ted, at-ten-dance. " — Murray. 

4. Divide the following words into their proper syllables : 
adit, ado, adorn, adown, adrift, anoint, athwart, awry, bespeak, 
bestow, between, bifold, encroach, incrust, foreknow, forestall, 
forswear, mishear, mistell, misyoke, outrap, overtire, preterit, 
retrace, unoiled, unrepaid, unresting, underbid, underanged, 
uphand, upholder, uprouse, withal. 

5. Divide the following compounds into syllables : England, 
anthill, cowslip, farewell, foresail, foretop, hogshead, homeward, 
sandstone, forever, husbandman, painstaker. 



CHAP. VI.] OKTHOGEAPHY. — EXERCISES. 37 

EXERCISE IV.— FIGURE OF WORDS. 

1 . The shine of the plough share is the farmer's wealth. 

The cross row has ever had some thing of a magic spell in it. 
The old fashioned are apt to think the world grows worse. 
The stealing of water melons may lead to house breaking, 
A good clothes brush helps greatly to make a gentle man. 

2. An ill-tongue is a fearful corrupter of good-manners. 
Envy not the good-luck of prosperous transgressors. 

St. Paul admonishes Timothy to refuse old-wives'-fables. 
Lawmakers have often been partial to male-descendants. 
New-year's-gifts brighten many a face on new-year's day. 

3. They that live in glass-houses, should not throw stones. 
A glass house is a house in which glass is manufactured. 
A spirit stirring discourse is seldom a long winded one. 
Knowledge and virtue are the stepping stones to honour. 
The American whip poor Will is a night warbling bird. 

4. Let school and meeting-houses be pleasantly located. 
The teapot and kettle are now deemed indispensable. 
Both the ten and the eight syllable verses are iambics. 
Most, at six or seventeen years of age, are men and women. 
A ketch is a vessel with two masts, a main and mizzen-mast. 

5. The bloodyminded man seldom dwells long in safety. 
A tiresmith puts on wheelbands redhot, then cools them. 
Plato was so called because he was broadshouldered. 
Timehonoured custom may be souldestroying folly. 

Is evenhanded honesty expected in slavemerchants 1 

6. A good pay-master is always a man of some fore-thought. 
The glory of the common-wealth is the states-man's boast. 
Rain-bows are made of sun-shine dissolved in sky-water. 

EXERCISE V.— SPELLING. 

1. Few know the value of a friend, til they lose him. 
Good men pas by offences, and take no revenge. 
Hear patiently, iff thou wouldst speak wel. 

2. The business of warr is devastation and destruction. 
To er is human ; to forgive, divine. 

A bad speller should not pretend to scholarshipp. 

3. It often requires deep diging, to obtain pure water. 
Praise is most shuned by the praiseworthy. 

He that hoists too much sail, runs a risk of overseting. 

4. Quarrels are more easily begun than endded. 

Contempt leaves a deepper scar than anger. 

Of all tame animak the flatterrer is the most mischievous. 

4 



38 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART I. 

5. Smalness with talness makes the figure too slender. 
Heedlesness is always in danger of embarrasment. 
The recklesness of license is no attribute of fredom. 

6. Good examples are very convinceing teachers. 
Doubts should not excite contention, but inquirey. 
Obligeing conduct procures deserved esteem. 

7. Wise men measure time by their improvment of it. 
Learn to estimate all things by their real usfulness. 
Encouragment increases with success 

8. Nothing essential to happyness is unattainable. 
Vices, though near relations, are all at varyance. 
Before thou denyest a favour, consider the request. 

9. Good-wil is a more powerful motive than constraint 
A wel-spent day prepares us for sweet repose. 

The path of fame is altogether an uphil road. 

EXERCISE VI.— SPELLING. 

1. He is tal enough who walks uprightly. 
Repetition makes smal transgressions great. 
Religion regulates the wil and affections. 

2. To carry a ful cupp even, requires a steady hand. 
Idleness is the nest in which mischief lays its egs. 
The whole journey of life is besett with foes. 

3. Peace of mind should be prefered to bodily safety. 
A bad begining is unfavourable to sucoess. 

Very fruitful trees often need to be proped. 

4. None ever gained esteem by tattling and gossipping. 
Religion purifies, fortifies, and tranquillizes the mind. 
They had all been closetted together a long time. 

5. Blesed. is he whose transgresion is forgiven. 
Indolence and listlesness are foes to happiness. 
Carelesness has occasioned many a wearisome step. 

6. In all thy under takeings, ponder the motive and the end. 
We cannot wrong others without injureing ourselves. 

A dureable good cannot spring from an external cause. 

7. Duely appreciate and improve your privileges. 
To borrow of future time, is thriftless managment. 
He who is truely a freman is above mean compliances. 

8. Pitiing friends cannot save us in a diing hour. 
Wisdom rescues the decaies of age from aversion. 
Vallies are generally more fertile than hills. 

9. Cold numness had quite bereft her of sense. 

A cascade, or waterfal, is a charming object in scenery. 



CHAP. VI.] ORTHOGRAPHY. — EXERCISES. 39 

Nettles grow in the vinyard of the slothfull. 
Tuition is lost on idlers and numbsculs. 

EXERCISE VII.— SPELLING. 

1. He that scofs at the crooked, should beware of stooping. 
Pictures that resemble flowers, smel only of paint. 
Misdemeanours are the pioneers of gros vices. 

2. To remitt a wrong, leaves the offender in debt. 
Superlative commendation is near akinn to detraction. 
Piety admitts not of excessive sorrow. 

3. You are safe in forgeting benefits you have confered. 
He has run well who has outstriped his own errors. 
See that you have ballast proportionate to your riging. 

4. The biasses of prejudice often preclude convincement. 
Rather follow the wise than lead the foollish. 

To reason with the angry, is like whisperring to the deaf. 
A bigotted judge needs no time for deliberation. 
The gods of this world have many worshippers. 

5. Crosness has more subjects than admirers. 
Eearlesness conquers where Blamelesness is armour-bearer. 

6. Many things are chiefly valued for their rareity. 
Vicious old age is hopeless and deploreable. 
Irreconcileable animosity is always blameable. 

7. Treachery lurks beneath a guilful tongue. 
Disobedience and mischief deserve chastisment. 

By self examination, we discover the lodgments of sin. 
The passions often mislead the judgment. 

8. To be happy without holyness is impossible. 
And, all within, were walks and allies wide. 
Call imperfection what thou fancy'st such. 
Without fire chimnies are useless. 

9. The true philanthropist deserves a universal pasport. 
Ridicule is generally but the froth of il-nature. 

All mispent time will one day be regretted. 

EXERCISE VIII.— SPELLING. 

Fiction may soften, without improveing the heart 
Affectation is a sprout that should be niped in the bud. 
A covettous person is always in want. 
Fashion is compareable to an ignis-fatuus. 
Fair appearances somtimes cover foul purposes. 
Garnish not your commendations with flatterry. 
Never utter a falshood even for truth's sake. 



40 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAKT 

Medicines should be administerred with caution. 
We have here no continueing city, no abideing reat. 
Many a trapp is laid to ensnare the feet of youth. 
We are caught as sillyly as the bird in the net. 
By defering repentance, we accumulate sorrows. 
To preach to the droneish, is to waste your words. 
We are often benefitted by what we have dreaded. 
We may be succesful, and yet disappointed. 
In rebusses, pictures are used to represent words. 
He is in great danger who parlies with conscience. 
Your men of forhead are magnificent in promises. 
A true friend is a most valueable acquisition. 
It is not a bad memory that forgets injuryes. 
Weigh your subject wel, before you speak positivly. 
Difficulties are often increased by mismanagment. 
Diseases are more easyly prevented than cured. 
Contrivers of mischief often entrapp themselves. 
Corrupt speech indicates a distemperred mind. 
Asseveration does not allways remove doubt. 
Hypocrites are like wolves in sheeps' clotheing. 
Ostentatious liberallity is its own paymaster. 

EXERCISE IX.— SPELLING. 

A downhil road may be travelled with ease. 
Distempered fancy can swel a molehil to a mountain. 
Let your own unbiassed judgment determine. 
A knave can often undersel his honest neighbours. 
Xenophanes prefered reputation to wealth. 
True politeness is the ofspring of benevolence. 
Levellers are generally the dupes of designning men. 
Rewards are for those who have fullfiled their duty. 
Who trusts a hungry boy in a cubburd of dainties ? 
Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellers. 
The liberal man ties his purse with a beau-not. 
Double-deelers are seldom long in favour. 
The characters of the crosrow have wrought wonders. 
The plagiary is a jacdaw decked with stolen plumes. 
All virtues are in agrement ; all vices, at varyance. 
Personnal liberty is every man's natural birthrite. 
There, wrapt in clouds, the blueish hills ascend. 
The birds frame to thy song, their chearfull cherupping 
There figgs, skydyed, a purple hue disclose. 
Lysander goes twice a day to the choccolat-house. 
Years following years, steal sumthing every day. 



CHAP. VI.] ORTHOGRAPHY. — EXERCISES. 41 

The soul of the slothful], does but drowse in his body. 

What think you of a clergiman in a soldier's dres ? 

Justice is here holding the stilliards for a balance. 

The huming-bird is somtimes no biger than a bumble-be. 

The muskittoes will make you as spoted as a samon-trout. 

Cruelty to animals is a malicious and lo-lived vice. 

Absolute Necessity must sign their deth-warrant. 

He who catches flies, emulates the nat-snaper. 

The froggs had long lived unmolested in a horspond. 

i These are villanous creatures,' says a blokheded bojr. 
The robbin-read-breast til of late had rest j 
And children sacred held a martin's nest 



£2 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PARTU. 



PART II. 

ETYMOLO GY. 

Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, with 
their classes and modifications. 



CHAPTER L— THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The Parts of Speech, or sorts of words, in English, are 
ten ; namely, the Article, the Noun, the Adjective, the 
Pronoun, the Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, the Con- 
junction, the Preposition, and the Interjection. 

1. The Article. 

An Article is the word the, an, or a, which we put 
before nouns to limit their signification : as, The air, the 
stars ; an island, a ship. 

2. The Noun. 

A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, 
that can be known or mentioned : as, George, York, man, 
apple, truth. 

3. The Adjective. 

An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, 
and generally expresses quality : as, A wise man ; a new 
book. You two are diligent. 

4. The Pronoun. 

A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun : as, 
The boy loves his book; he has long lessons, and he 
learns them well. 

5. The Verb. 

A Yerb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be 
acted upon: as, I am, I rule, I am ruled; I love, thou 
lovest, he loves. 



CHAP. I.J ETYMOLOGY.— PARSING. 48 

6. The Participle. 

A Participle is a word derived from a verb, partici- 
pating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a 
noun ; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, 
to the verb: thus, from the verb rule, are formed three 
participles, twc simple and one compound; as, 1. ruling, 
2. ruled, 3. having ruled. 

7. The Adverb. 

An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an 
adjective, or an other adverb; and generally expresses 
time, place, degree, or manner : as, They are now here, 
studying very diligently. 

8. The Conjunction. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or 
sentences in construction, and to show the dependence 
of the terms so connected : as, u Thou and he are happy, 
because you are good." — L. Murray. 

9. The Preposition. 

A Preposition is a word used to express some rela- 
tion of different things or thoughts to each other, and is 
generally placed before a noun or a pronoun : a?, The 
paper lies before me on the desk. 

10. The Interjection. 

An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to 
Indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind: as, 
Oh ! alas ! ah ! jpoh ! pshaw ! avaunt 1 



PARSING. 



Parsing is the resolving or explaining of a sentence, 
or of some related word or words, according to the defi- 
nitions and rules of grammar. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, making con 
plete sense ; as, " Eeward sweetens labor. — " The fear c 
the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." 



44 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 

A definition of any thing or class of tilings is such a descrip- 
tion of it, as distinguishes that entire thing or class from every 
thing else, by briefly telling what : t is. 

A rule of grammar is some law, more or less general, by 
which custom regulates and prescribes the right use of lan- 
guage. 

A praxis is a method of exercise, showing the learner how 
to proceed. (The word literally signifies action, doing, practice, 
or formal use.) 

An example is a particular instance or model, serving to prove 
or illustrate some given proposition or truth. 

An exercise is some technical performance required of the 
learner in order to test his knowledge or skill by use. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
PRAXIS I. — ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In the First Praxis, it is required of the %)upil — to distinguish 
the different parts of speech, and to assign a reason for such 
distinction, by citing the proper definition, and adapting it to 
each particular case. Thus : — 

EXAMPLE PARSED. 

" The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs 
the labor required of him." 

1.* Submits is a verb, because it signifies action ; 

Performs is also a verb, for the same reason. 
2. Ox is a noun, because it is the name of a thing ; 

Yoke and labor are nouns, for the same reason. 
S. The is an article, because it limits the signification of ox, yoke, or 
labor — the noun before which it is placed. 

4. Patient is an adjective, because it expresses the quality of ox. 

5. Him is a pronoun, because it is used instead of the noun ox. 

6. Required is a participle, because it expresses action like a verb, 

and qualifies the noun labor like an adjective. 

* *$M~ The numbers are here nsod to indicate the order in whr "■• the pupil should, 
at first, be required to distinguish the parts of speech in any sen. nee. The rerb is 
made the first in this series, because it is the word to which all others ve an imme- 
diate or remote relation, and hecause t is easily recognized, and, when discovered, 
leads the mind necessarily to a knowledge of the other parts of speech comprehended 
in the sentence, by showing the particular office of every word. This cannot be done, 
at this stage of the pupil's progress, with a proper degree of intelligence and pre- 
cision, by mechanically examining each word in succession; for the reason that to 
do so requires him to compare the distinctive office of each pari of speech with the 
word examined ; wlr" \ i i these preliminary exercises, he is only required to keep in 
mind the charaet -r of a single part of speech, and compare it with each word of the 
sentence in succession. Besides, an eclectic process like that indicated, is better 
calculated to keep the interest and attention of the pupil awake, the constant desire 
•f discovery continually stimulating mental aarvity, 



CHAP. I.] ETYMOLOGY. — PARSING. — PRAXIS I. 45 

7. Meekly is an adverb, because it is added to the verb performs* 

and expresses manner. 

8. And is a conjtinctioa, because it connects submits and. performs. 
8. To is a preposition, because it expresses the relation of the verb 

submits to the noun yoke. 



EXERCISE I. 

Parse, in the following sentences, the verb, the noun, and the 
article, in the order, and according to the method, indicated 
in Praxis I. 

The tree bears fruit. Pizarro invaded Peru. Avarice causes 
crime. The miser loves gold. The ox bears a yoke. The 
river overflowed the banks. John's brother has entered college. 
The carpenter is using a saw. John Smith explored Virginia. 
Columbus was a Genoese. Napoleon Bonaparte died an exile. 
Lend Charles a book. The m ere 1. ant has made a fortune. 
Did the candidate obtain the office? The elephant is a quad- 
ruped. Virgil praised the emperor Augustus. The boys have 
told an untruth. The scholar's diligence deserves a reward. 
Could the criminal have escaped punishment? Queen Dido 
founded Carthage. Scipio defeated Hannibal. 

EXERCISE II. 

Parse, in the following sentences, the verb, the noun, the article, 

the adjective, the pronoun, and the adverb, in the order, and 

according to the method, indicated in Praxis I. 

The industrious boys have recited their lessons well. 

The architect who planned that fine building, is named Brown. 

Demosthenes was a very famous Grecian orator. 

A child who disobeys his parents, is very ungrateful. 

Human happiness is exceedingly transient. 

The man who has not virtue, is not truly wise. 

I saw the whole transaction ; both parties disgraced them* 
selves. They had a fierce dispute. 

Perseverance finally overcomes all obstacles. 

I, who was present, know all the particulars. 

A Being infinitely wise will not unnecessarily afflict hi* 
creatures. 

Passionate men are very easily irritated. 

Good books always deserve a careful perusal. 

Evil communications corrupt good manners. 

EXERCISE III. 

Parse all the parts of speech to be found in the following sen* 
tenceSf according to Praxis T. 



46 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GKAMMAR. [PART II 

The rose, the lily, and the pink, are fragrant flowers. 

A landscape presents a pleasing variety of objects. 

The eagle has a strong and piercing eye. 

The swallow builds her nest of mud, and lines it with soft 
feathers. 

The setting sun gives a beautiful brilliancy to the western sky. 

Virtuous youth gradually brings forward accomplished and 
flourishing manhood. 

Sloth enfeebles equally the bodily and the mental powers. 
It saps the foundation of every virtue, and pours upon us a 
deluge of crimes and evils. 

O Virtue ! how miserable are they who forfeit thy rewards! 

Alas ! such miseries are too common among mankind ! 

Industry is needful in every condition of life ; the price of 
all improvement is labor. 

When spring returns, the trees resume their verdure, and 
the plants and flowers display their beauty. 



CHAPTEE n.— OF ARTICLES. 

An Article is the word the, an, or a, which we put 
"before nouns to limit their signification : as, The air, the 
stars ; an island, a ship. 

An and a are one and the same article. An is used when- 
ever the following word begins with a vowel sound; as, An 
art, an end, an heir, an inch, an ounce, an hour, an urn. — A is 
used whenever the following word begins with a consonant 
sound; as, A man, a house, a wonder, a one, a yew, a use, a 
ewer. Thus the consonant sounds of w and y, even when ex- 
pressed by other letters, require a and not an before them. 

CLASSES. 

The articles are distinguished as the definite and the 
indefinite. 

I. The definite article is the, which denotes some par- 
ticular thing or things ; as, The boy, the oranges. 

II. The indefinite article is an or a, which denotes one 
thing of a kind, but not any particular one ; as, A boy, 
an orange. 

Obs. 1.— -The English articles have no grammatical modifications ; they are 



CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY.— NOUNS.— CLASSES. 47 

not varied by numbers, genders, and cases, as are tbose of some other lan- 
guages. In respect to class, each is sui generis. 

Obs. 2.— A common noun without an article or other word to limit its sig- 
nification, is generally taken in its widest sense ; as, " A candid temper is 
proper for man; that is,/<?/* all mankind" — Murray. 



CHAPTEB III.— OF NOUNS. 

A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, 
that can be known or mentioned : as, George, York, man, 
apple, truth. 

Obs. 1. — All words and signs taken technically, (that is, independently of 
their meaning, and merely as things spoken of,) are nouns ; or, rather, are 
things read and construed as nouns ; as, Us is a personal pronoun." — Mur- 
ray. " Th has two sounds. 1 ' — Id. " Control is probably contracted from 
eounterrpU." — Grabb. "Without one if or but." — Gowper. "A is some- 
times a noun ; as, a great A." — Todd's 'Johnson. " Formerly sp was cast in 
a piece, as sfs are now." — Hist, of Printing \ 1770. 

Obs. 2. — In parsing, the learner must observe the sense and use of each 
word, and class it accordingly: many words commonly belonging to other 
parts of speech, are occasionally used as nouns, and must be parsed as such ; 
as, 1. " The Ancient of days." — Bible. " Of the ancients.'" — Swift. " For 
such impertinents." — Steele. "He is an ignorant in it." — Id "To the 
nines." — Burns. 2. " Or any he, the proudest of thy sort." — Shah "lam 
the happiest she in Kent." — Steele. " The shes of Italy." — Shah. " The hes 
in birds." — Bacon. 3. " Avaunt all attitude, and stare, and start, theatric !" 
■ — Gowper. " A may-be of mercy is insufficient." — Bridge. 4. " For the pro- 
ducing of real happiness." — Grabb. " Heading, writing, and ciphering, are 
indispensable to civilized man." 5. " An Thereafter." — Addison. " The dread 
of a hereafter." — Fuller. " The deep amen." — Scott. " The while." — Milton. 
6. " With hark, and whoop, and wild halloo." — Scott. " Will cuts him short 
With a ' What thm V "—Addison. 

CLASSES. 

Norms are divided into two general classes ; proper 
and common. 

I. A proper noun is the name of some particular indi- 
vidual, or people, or group ; as, Adam, Boston, the Hud- 
son, the Romans, the Azores, the Alps. 

II. A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or 
class, of beings or things ; as, Beast, bird, fish, insect, — ■ 
creatures, persons, children. 

. The particular classes, collective, abstract, and verbal or par* 
ticipial, are usually included among common nouns. The 
name of a thing sui generis is also called common. 

1. A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is the name of 
many individuals together ; as, Council, meeting, committee, 
jlock. 



48 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PARTU, 

2. An abstract noun is the name of some particular quality 
considered apart from its substance ; as, Goodness, hardness, 
pride, frailty. 

3. A verbal or participial noun is the name of some action 
or state of being ; and is formed from a verb, like a participle, 
but employed as a noun : as, " The triumphing of the wicked 
is short." — Job, xx, 5. 

4. A thing sui generis, (i. e., of its own peculiar kind,) is 
something which is distinguished, not as an individual of a 
species, but as a sort by itselfj without plurality in either the 
noun or the sort of thing ; as, Galvanism, music, geometry. 

Obs- 1.— The proper name of a person or place with an article prefixed, ia 
generally Uvsed as a common noun ; as, " He is the Cicero of his age," — that 
is. the orator. " Many a fiery Alp,'''' — that is, mountain : except when a com- 
mon noun is. understood; as, The [river] Hudson, — The [ship] Amity, — The 
treacherous [man] Judas. 

Obs. 2. — A common noun with the definite article prefixed to it, some- 
times becomes proper ; as, The Park, — The Strand. 

Obs. 3. — The common name of a thing or quality personified often becomes 
proper; as, '"My power,' said Reason, 'is to advise, not to compel.'"— 
Johnson. 

MODIFICATIONS. • 

Nouns have modifications of four kinds; namely, 
Persom t Numbers, Genders, and Cases. 

PERSONS. 

Persons, in grammar, are modifications that distin- 
guish the speaker, the hearer, and the person or thing 
merely spoken of. 

Obs. — The distinction of persons is founded on the different relations 
which the objects mentioned may bear to the discourse itself. It belongs to 
nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs ; and to these it is always applied, either 
by peculiarity of form or construction, or by inference from the principles of 
concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are like their sub- 
jects, in person. 

There are three persons; the first, the second, and tha 
third. 

The first person is that which denotes the speaker or 
writer ; as "I Paul have written it." 

The second person is that which denotes the hearer, or 
the person addressed ; as, " Robert, who did this ?" 

The third person is that which denotes the person oi 
thing merely spoken of; as, " James loves his book." 

Obs. 1. — In written language, the first person denotes the writer or author; 
and the second, the reader or person addressed : except when the writer de> 
scribes not himself, but some one else, as uttering to an other the words 
whieh he records. 



CHAP. III. J ETYMOLOGY.— NOUNS.— NUMBEKS. 49 

Obs. 2. — The speaker seldom refers to himself by name as the speaker ; 
consequently, nouns are rarely used in the first person ; and when they are, 
a pronoun is usually prefixed to them. Hence some grammarians deny the 
first person to nouns altogether ; others ascribe it ; and many are silent on 
the subject. Analogy clearly requires it; as may be seen by the following 
examples: "Adsum Troius iEneas." — Virg. " Callopius recmswi."-- Ter. Com. 
apudjinem. " Paul, an apostle, &c, unto Timothy, my own son in the faith." 
—1 Tim., i. 1. 

Obs. 3. — When a speaker or writer does not choose to declare himself in 
thejirst person, or to address his hearer or reader in the second, he speaks 
of both or either in the third. Thus Moses relates what Moses did, and Csesar 
records the achievements of Ccesar. So Judah humbly beseeches Joseph: 
"Let thy servant abide in stead of the lad a bondman to my lord.'''' — Gen., 
xliv, 33. And Abraham reverently intercedes with God : " Oh ! let not the 
Lord be angry, and I will speak." — Gen., xviii, 30. 

Obs. 4. — When inanimate things are spoken to, they are personified ; and 
their names are put in the second person, because by the figure the objects 
are supposed to be capable of hearing. 

NUMBEKS. 

Numbers, in grammar, are modifications that distin- 
guish unity and plurality. 

Obs. — The distinction of numbers serves merely to show whether we speak 
of one object, or of more. It belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs ; 
and to these it is always applied, either by peculiarity of form, or by infer- 
ence from the principles of concord. Pronouns are like their antecedents, 
and verbs are like their subjects, in number. 

There are tw o numbers ; the singular and the plural. 

The singular number is that which denotes but one ; 
as, The boy learns. 

The plural number is that which denotes more than 
one ; as, The boys learn. 

The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by 
adding s or es to the singular : as, book, boohs; box, boxes. 

Rule I. — When the singular ends in a sound which will 
unite with that of s, the plural is generally formed by adding 
s only, and the number of syllables is not increased : as, pen, 
pens ; grape, grapes. 

Rule II. — But when the sound of s cannot be united with 
that of the primitive word, the plural adds s to final e, and es 
to other terminations, and forms a separate syllable : as, page, 
pages ; fox, foxes. 

Obs. 1. — English nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add es, but 
do not increase their syllables: as, wo, woes ; hero, heroes : negro, negroes; 
potato, potatoes ; muskitto, muskittoes ; octavo, octavoes. The exceptions to 
this rule appear to be in such nouns as are not properly and fully Anglicized ; 
thus many write cantos, juntos, solos, &c. Other nouns in o add s only ; as, 
folio, folios ; bamboo, bamboos. The plural of two is commonly written twos, 
but some prefer twoes. 

Obs. 2. — Common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y 
into i, and add es, without increase of syllables : as, fly, flies ; duty, duties. 

3 



50 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PART II. 

Other nouns in y add s only: as, day, days; valley, -valleys. So likewise 
proper names in y are sometimes varied ; as, Henry, the Henrys. 

Obs. 3.— The following nouns in f, change / into v, and add es, for tho 
plural; sheaf, leaf, loaf , beef , thief , calf, half, elf, shelf, self, wolf, wharf : as, 
sheaves, leaves, &c. Life, lives ; knife, hiives ; wife, wives ; are similar. 
Staff makes staves : though the compounds of staff are regular ; as, flagstaff, 
flagstaff's. The greater number of nouns in f and fe, are regular ; as, flfes, 
strifes, chiefs, griefs, gulfs, &c. 

Obs. 4. — The following are still more irregular : man, men ; woman, wo- 
men ; child, children ; brother, brethren [or brothers'] : foot, feet ; ox,, oxen ; 
tooth, teeth; goose, geese; louse, lice; mouse, mice; die, dice ; penny, pence ; 
Dies, stamps, and pennies, coins, are regular. 

Obs. 5. — Many foreign nouns retain their original plural : as, arcanum, 
arcana; datum, data; erratum, errata; effluvium, effluvia; medium, media 
[ or mediums] ; minutia, minutiai ; stratum, strata ; stamen, stamina ; genus, 
genera ; genius, genii [geniuses, for men of wit] ; magus, magi ; radius, radii ; 
appendix, appendices [or appendixes] ; calx, calces ; index, indices [or indexes] ; 
vortex, vortices; axis, axes; basis, bases; crisis, crises; thesis, theses; anti- 
thesis, antitheses; diceresis, diozreses ; ellipsis, ellipses j emphasis, emphases; 
hypothesis, hypotheses ; metamorphosis, metamorphoses; automaton, automata; 
criterion, criteria [or criter 'ions] ; phenomenon, phenomena ; cherub, cherubim ; 
seraph, seraphim; beau, beaux [or beaus], 

Obs. 6. — Some nouns (from the nature of the things meant) have no plural; 
as, gold, pride, meekness. 

Obs. 7. — Proper names of individuals, strictly used as such, have no plural. 
But when several persons of the same name are spoken of, the noun becomes 
in some degree common, and admits the plural form and an article ; as, Tim 
Stuarts, — The Coasars : so likewise when such nouns are used to denote char- 
acter; as, " TJte Aristoiles, the Tullys, and the Livys.' n — Burgh. 

Obs. 8. — The proper names of nations and societies arc generally plural ; 
and, except in a direct address, they are usually construed with the definite 
article: as, The Greeks, — The Jesuits. 

Obs. 9.— When a title is prefixed to a proper name so as to form a sort of 
compound, the name, and not the title, is varied to form the plural ; as, The 
Miss Howards, — The two Mr. Claries. But a title not regarded as a part of 
one compound name, must be made plural, if it refer to more than one ; as, 
Messrs. Lambert and Son, — The Lords Galthorpe and Erskine,—The Lords 
Bishops of Durham and St. David's, — The Lords Commissioners of Justiciary. 

Obs. 10. — Some nouns have no singular ; as, embers, ides, oats, scissors, 
tongs, vespers, literati. 

Obs. 11. — Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, deer, vermin, 
swine, hose, means, odds, news, species, series, apparatus. The following are 
sometimes construed as singular, but more frequently, and more properly, 
as plural: alms, amends, pains, riches ; ethics, mathematics, metaphysics, 
optics, politics, pneumatics, and other similar names of sciences. Bellows and 
gallows are properly alike in both numbers ; (as, " Let a gallows be made." — ■ 
Esther, v, 14. "The bellows are burned." — Jer., vi., 29 ;) but they have a 
regular plural in vulgar use. Bolus, fungus, isthmus, prospectus, and rebus, 
admit the regular plural. 

Obs. 12.— Compounds in which the principal word is put first, vary the 
principal word to form the plural, and the adjunct to form the possessive 
case : as, Sing, father-in-law, Plur. fathers-in-law, Poss. father-in-law's ; — 
Sing, court-martial, Plur. courts-martial, Poss. court-martial 's. The Possess- 
ive plural of such nouns is never used. 

Obs. 13*— Compounds ending in ful, and all those in which the principal 
word is put last, form the plural in the same manner as other nouns ; as, 
handfuls, spoonfuls, mouthfuls, fellow -servants, man-servants, outpourings, 
ingatherings, downsittings. 

Obs. 14. — Nouns of multitude, when taken collectively, generally admit 
the plural form ; as, meeting, meetings : but when taken distributively, they 
have a plural signification, without the form ; S3, " The jury were divided." 

Obs. 15, — When other parts of speech become nouns, they either want th* 



CHAP, III.] ETYMOLOGY— NOUNS.— GENDER?. 51 

plural, or firm :H> regularly, like common nouns of the same endings ; as, 
"His affairs wea f on at sices and sevens." — Arbuihnot. " Some mathemati- 
cians haze pi" 1 , o»ed to compute by twoes ; others, by fours ; others, by twelves." 
— Churchill. 'Three fourths, nine tenths:'— Id. " Time's takings and leav- 
ings.'' — Barton. "The yeas and nays:'' — Newspaper. "The ays and reces." 
— Tfo'd. "The %ns and the owfe." — Ibid. "Risands and his ors." — Ifott. 



One of the buts." — Fowle. " In raising the mirth of stupids: 1 
GENDERS. 
Genders, in grammar, are modifications that distin* 
guish objects in regard to sex. 

Obs. — The different genders are founded on the natural distinction of ses 
in animals, and on the absence of sex in other things. In English, they be- 
long only to nouns and pronouns ; and to these they are usually applied 
agreeably to the order of nature. Pronouns are of the same gender as the 
nouns for which they stand. 

There are three genders ; the masculine, the feminine, 
and the neuter. 

The masculine gender is that which denotes persons or 
animals of the male kind; as, man, father, king. 

The feminine gender is that which denotes persons or 
animals of the female kind ; as, woman, mother, queen. 

The neuter gender is that which denotes things that 
are neither male nor female ; as, pen, ink, paper. 

Obs. 1. — Some nouns are equally applicable to both sexes; as, cousin, 
friend, neighbour, parent, person, servant. The gender of these is usually 
determined by the context. To such words, some grammarians have applied 
the unnecessary and improper term common gender. Murray justly observes, 
" There is no such gender belonging to the language. The business of 
parsing, can be effectually performed without having recourse to a common 
gender.' 1 '' The term is more useful, and less liable to objection, as applied to 
the learned languages ; but with us it is plainly a solecism. 

Obo. 2. — Generic names, even when construed as masculine or feminine, 
often virtually include both sexes ; as, "Hast thou given the horse strength f 
hast thou clothed his neck with thunder?" — " Doth the hawk fly by thy wis- 
dom, and stretch her wings toward the south V — Job. These nave been 
called epicene nouns — that is, supercommon ; but they are to be parsed each 
according to the gender of the pronoun which is put for it. 

Obs. 3. — Those terms which are equally applicable to both sexes, (if they 
are not expressly applied to females,) and those plurals which are known to 
include both sexes, should be called masculine in parsing ; for, in all lan- 
guages, the masculine gender is considered the most worthy, and is generally 
employed when both sexes are included under one common term. 

Obs. 4. — The sexes are distinguished in three ways : 

I. By the use of different names : as, bachelor, maid ; boy, girl ; brother, 
sister ; hick, doe; bull, cow; cock, hen; drake, duck; earl, countess ; father, 
mother ; friar, nun; gander, goose; hart, roe; horse, mare; husband, wife; 
king, queen ; lad, lass; lord, lady ; man, woman; master, mistress; milter, 
gpawner; nepheio, niece; ram, eive ; sloven, slut; son, daughter ; stag, hind', 
steer, heifer ; uncle, aunt ; wizard, tcitch. 

II. By the use of different terminations: as, abbot, abbess; administrator, 
administratrix; adulterer, adulteress ; bridegroom, bride; caterer, cateress; 
duke, duchess; emperor, emperess or empress; executor, executrix; governor, 
governess; hero, heroine; landgrave, landgravine; margrave, margravine; 



52 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II, 



marquis, marchioness; sorcerer, sorceress , 

tutor, testatrix ; tutor, tutoress or tutress ; widower, widow. 

The following nouns become feminine by merely adding ess ; baron, deacon, 
heir, host, jew, lion, mayor, patron, peer, poet, priest, prior, prophet, shepherd, 



The following nouns become feminine by rejecting the last vowel, and 
adding ess: actor, ambassador, arbiter, benefactor, chanter, conductor, doctor, 
elector, enchanter, f&wnder, hunter, idolator, inventor, prince, protector, song- 
ster, spectator, suitor, tiger, traitor, votary. 

III. By prefixing an attribute of distinction : as, cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow; 
man-servant, ma/id-servant; he-goat, she-goat; male relations, female relations. 

Obs. 5. — The names of things without life, used literally, are always of 
the neuter gender. , But inanimate objects are often represented figuratively, 
as having sex. Things remarkable for power, greatness, or sublimity, are 
spoken of as masculine ; as, the sun, time, death, sleep, fear, anger, winter ', 
war. Things beautiful, amiable, or prolific, are spoken of as feminine ; as, 
the moon, earth, nature, fortune, Knowledge, hope, spring, peace. 

Obs. 6.— Nouns of multitude, when they convey the idea of unity, or take 
the plural form, are of the neuter gender ; but when they convey the idea 
of plurality without the form, they follow the gender of the individuals that 
compose the assemblage. 

Obs. 7. — Creatures whose sex is unknown, or unnecessary to be regarded, 
are generally spoken of as neuter; as, " He fired at the deer, and wounded 
it." — "If a man shall steal an ox or a, sheep, and kill it or sell Uj n &c— 
Exodus, xxii, 1, 

CASES. 

Cases, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish 
the relations of nouns and pronouns to other words. 

Obs. — The cases are founded on the different relations under which things 
are represented in discourse, and from which the words acquire correspond- 
ent relations, or become dependent one on an other, according to the sense. 
In English, these modifications, or relations, belong only to nouns and pro- 
nouns. Pronouns are not necessarily like their antecedents, in case. 

There are three cases ; the nominative, the possessive^ 
and the objective. 

The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or 
pronoun, which usually denotes the subject of a finite 
verb: as, The boy runs; /run. 

Obs. — The subject of a finite verb is that which answers to who or what 
before it ; as, " The boy runs" — Who runs ? The boy. Boy is therefore 
here in the nominative case. 

The possessive case is that form or state of a noun or 
pronoun, which usually denotes the relation of property: 
as, The boy's hat; my hat. 

Obs. 1. — The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singular number, 
by adding to the nominative s preceded by an apostrophe ; and, in the plural, 
when the nominative ends in s, by adding an apostrophe only : as, singular, 
hoy's; plural, boys'; — sounded alike, but written differently. 

Obs. 2. — Plural nouns that do not end in *, usually form the possessive 
case in the same manner as the singular ; as, miri's, men's. 

Obs. 3. — When the singular and the plural are alike in the nominative, 
the apostrophe, which (as Dr. Johnson lias shown) is merely a sign of th© 



CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY.— NOUNS— CASES. 



63 



case, and not of elision, ought to follow the s in the plural, to distinguish i\ 
from the singular ; as, sheep's, sheeps\ 

Obs. 4.— Tne apostrophie s adds a syllable to the noun, when it will not 
unite with the sound in which the nominative ends ; as, torch's, pronounced 
torchiz. . 

Obs. 5. — The apostrophe and 8 are sometimes added to mere characters, to 
denote plurality, .and not the possessive case ; as, Two <z's — three 6' s — four 
9's. In the tbiiowing example, they are used to give the sound of a verbal 
termination to words that are not properly verbs : " When a man in a solil- 
oquy reasons with himself, and pro's and con's, and weighs all his designs," 
&c. — Congreve. 

The objective case is that form or state of a noun or* 
pronoun, which usually denotes the object of a verb, 
participle, or preposition : as, I know the boy ; he knows 
me. 



Obs. 1. — The object of a verb, participle, or preposition, is that which an- 
Bwers to whom or what after it ; as, " I know the boy." — I know whom ? The 
loy. Boy is therefore here in the objective case. 

Obs. 2. — The nominative and the objective of nouns, are always alike in 
form, being distinguishable from each other only by their place in a sen- 
tence, or their simple dependence according to the sense. 



THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

The declension of a noun is a regular arrangement of its 
numbers and cases. Thus : — 

EXAMPLE I. FRIEND. 



Sing. Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 



friend, 
friend's, 
friend ; 



Plur. Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 



friends, 
friends', 
friends. 



EXAMPLE II.- — MAN. 



Sing. Nom, 
Poss. 

Obj. 



man, 
man's, 
man ; 



Plur. Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 



men, 



men. 



EXAMPLE III. FOX. 

Sing. Nom. fox, Plur. Nom. foxes, 

Poss. fox's, Poss. foxes', 

Obj. fox; 'Obj. foxes. 

EXAMPLE IV. FLY. 



Sing. Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 



fly, 
fly; 



Plur. Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 



flies, 
flies', 
flies. 



54 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART H. 



ANALYSIS. 

Analysis is the separation of a sentence into the parts 
which compose it. 

Every sentence must contain two principal parts ; 
namely, the subject and the predicate. 

Whatever is directly spoken of in the sentence is the 
subject ; as, " The sun has set." — " Can you write ? " 

That which is said of the subject is the predicate. In 
its simplest form it is always a verb ; as, " Beauty fades? 

Any combination of the subject and predicate is called 
a proposition. 

A simple sentence is one that contains only one propo- 
sition ; as, " Fire burns." — " The truth will prevail." 

Sentences are divided, with respect to the nature of 
the propositions which they contain, into four classes ; 
declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. 

A sentence is declarative when it expresses an affir- 
mation or negation ; interrogative, when it expresses a 
question ; imperative, when it expresses a command ; 
and exclamatory, when it expresses an exclamation. 

Obs. 1. — The predicate being always a verb, the subject of the sentence is 
the subject of the verb, as defined in Obs. page 52. The object of the verb, 
when the latter is the predicate of a sentence, may be treated as a distinct 
part of the sentence. It properly, however, modifies the verb, and is not a 
primary element of the sentence. In imperative sentences, the subject is 
the pronoun thou or you (understood). For the definition of the object of a 
verb, see Obs. 1, page 53. 

Obs. 2. — There are sometimes used in connection with a sentence, words 
that form no part of its structure. Such words are said to be independent. 
A noun or a pronoun may be independent in various ways ; as, 

1. The name of a person or thing addressed ; as, " Jo7m, when will you 

go ? "— ' ' O ye of little faith ! " 

2. The name of a person or thing which is the subject of an exclamation ; 

as, "Alas, poor Yorick ! " 

3. An expletive word used merely to make the subject or object em- 

phatic ; as, u The Spring — she is a blessed thing!" — "Gad, a 

troop shall overcome him. ' ' 
Such nouns and pronouns, although independent in state, require the form 
of the nominative case, and therefore, In parsing, should be said to be in 
that case. Interjections are always independent. 



EXEECISES IIST ANALYSIS AND PAESING. 

PRAXIS II.— ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In the Second Praxis, it is required of the pupil — to state 
whether the sentence is declarative, interrogative, imperative^ 



CHAP. III.] ETYMOLOGY. — ADJECTIVES. 55 

or exclamatory ; to analyze it by pointing out the subject, pred* 
icate, and object ; and to parse it by distinguishing the different 
parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the 
nouns. Thus : — 



EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED. 

" Columbus studied geography." 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is Columbus / 
the predicate, studied ; the object, geography. 

Pausing. — Columbus is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular 
individual ; it is of the third person, because it is the name of a per- 
son spoken of; of the singular number, because it denotes but one ; 
of the masculine gender, because it is the name of a male ; and in the 
nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb studied. 

Studied is a verb, because it signifies action. 

Geography is a common noun, because it is the name of a thing sui generis ; 
(see page 48). It is of the third person, because it is spoken of; of 
the singular number, because it denotes but one ; of the neuter gen- 
der, because it is neither male nor female : and in the objective case, 
because it is the object of the verb studied. 

Generosity makes friends. Can indolence bestow wealth ? 
Despise meanness. Can man avoid errors ? Does Eliza under- 
stand Italian ? Love truth. Perseverance overcomes obstacles. 
What did you say ? Diligence deserves praise. It should be 
rewarded. Could he have avoided disgrace ? Romulus founded 
Home. Forgetfulness cures sorrow. Can liars respect them- 
selves ? Do they fear God? Birds sing. Cowards fear death. 
Sinners feel remorse. Has John returned ? Time flies. Plants 
produce fruit. Observation increases knowledge. Mortal, 
prepare. Take warning, youth ! Liberty, it has fled ! Elec- 
tricity causes lightning. Avarice extinguishes generosity. In- 
tegrity inspires confidence. Who can frust liars ? 



CHAPTER IV.— OP ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective is a word added to a noun or pronoun, 
and generally expresses quality : as, A wise man ; a new 
book. You two are diligent. 

CLASSES. 

Adjectives may be divided into six classes ; namely, 
common, proper, numeral, pronominal, participial, and 
compound. 



56 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [P ART II. 

I. A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or ad- 
jective denoting quality or situation ; as, Good, bad, 
peaceful, warlike — eastern, western, outer, inner. 

II. A proper adjective is one that is formed from a pro- 
per name ; as, American, HJnglish, Platonic. 

III. A numeral adjective is one that expresses a defi- 
nite number ; as, One, two, three, four, five, six, &c. 

IY. A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which 
may either accompany its noun, or represent it under- 
stood ; as, "All join to guard what each desires to gain." 
■ — Pope. That is, All men join to guard what each man 
desires to gain. 

Y. A participial adjective is one that has the form of a 
participle, but differs from it by rejecting the idea of 
time; as, An amusing story. 

VI. A compound adjective, is one that consists of two 
or more words joined together ; as, Nat-brown, laughter- 
loving, four-footed. 

Obs. 1. — Numeral adjectives are of three kinds: namely, 

1. Cardinal ; as, One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, 
eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, &c. 

2. Ordinal; as, First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, 
ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, &c. 

3. Multiplicative; as, Single or alone, double or twofold, triple or three- 
fold, quadruple or fourfold, quintuple or fivefold, sextuple or sixfold, sep- 
tuple or sevenfold, octuple or eightfold, &c. 

Obs. 2. — Compound adjectives, being formed at pleasure, are very numer- 
ous and various. Many of them embrace numerals, and run on in a series ; 
as, one-leaved, two-leaved, three-leaved, four-leaved, &c. 



MODIFICATIONS. 

Adjectives have, commonly, no modifications but the 
forms of comparison. 

Comparison is a variation of the adjective to express 
quality in different degrees ; as, hard, harder, hardest. 

There are three degrees of comparison ; the positive, 
the comparative, and the superlative. 

The positive degree is that which is expressed by the 
adjective in its simple form ; as, hard, soft, good. 

The comparative degree is that which exceeds the pos- 
itive ; as, harder, softer, better. 

The superlative degree is that which is not exceeded ; 
as, hardest, softest, best. 

Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of 



CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY.— ADJECTIVES.— COMPARISON". 57 

different degrees, cannot be compared: as, two, second, 
all, total, immortal, infinite. 

Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but 
not in form, are compared by means of adverbs ; as, 
skillful, more skillful, most skillful — skillful, less skillful, 
least skillful. 

REGULAR COMPARISON". * 

Adjectives are regularly compared, when the comparative 
degree is expressed by adding er, and the superlative, by add 
ing est to them ; as. 

Positive, Comparative. Superlative, 

great, greater, greatest. 

*wide, . wider, widest, 

hot, hotter, hottest. 

The regular method of comparison is chiefly applicable to 
monosyllables, and to dissyllables ending in y or mute e. 

COMPARISON" BY ADVERBS. 

The different degrees of a quality may also be expressed, 
with precisely the same import, by prefixing to the adjective 
the adverbs more and most : as, wise, more wise, most wise ; 
famous, more famous, most famous ; amiable, more amiable, 
most amiable. 

The degrees of diminution are expressed, in like manner, by 
the adverbs less and least: as, wise, less wise, least wise ; famous, 
less famous, least famous ; amiable, less amiable, least amiable. 

Obs. 1, — Adjectives of more than one syllable, except dissyllables ending 
in y or mute e, rarely admit a change of termination, but are rather compared 
by means of the adverbs : thus we say, virtuous, more virtuous, most virtuous; 
but not virtuous, virtuouser, virtuousest. 

Obs. 2. — The prefixing of an adverb can hardly be called a variation of the 
adjective ; the words may with more propriety be parsed separately, the 
degree being ascribed to the adverb — or, if you please, to both words ; for 
both are varied in sense by the inflection of the former. 

Obs. 3. — The degrees in which qualities may exist in nature, are infinitely 
various ; but the only degrees with which the grammarian is concerned, are 
those which our variation of the adjective or adverb enables us to express. 
Whenever the adjective itself denotes these degrees, they properly belong to 
it ; as, worthy, worthier, worthiest. If an adverb is employed for this purpose, 
that also is compared, and the two degrees formed are properly its own ; as, 
worthy, more worthy, most worthy. But these same degrees may be other- 
wise expressed ; as. worthy, in a higher degree worthy, xn the highest degree 
worthy. Here also the adjective worthy is virtually compared as before ; but 
only the adjective high is grammatically modified. Many grammarians have 
erroneously parsed the adverbs more and most, less and least, as parts of the 
adjective. 

* See Eules for Spelling III. and VL 



58 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAETII. 

IEREGULAE COMPAEISON. 

The following adjectives are compared irregularly: good, 
better, best; bad or ill, worse, worst; little, less, least ; much, 
more, most; many, more, most. 

Obs. 1. — In English, and also in Latin, most adjectives that denote place 
or situation, not only form the superlative irregularly, but are also either re- 
dundant or defective in comparison. Thus : — 

I. The following nine have more than one superlative : far, farther, far- 
thest, farmost or farthermost ; near, nearer, nearest or next ; fore, former, 
foremost ox first ; hind, hinder, hindmost or hindermost ; in, inner, inmost or 
innermost; out, outer or utter, outmost or utmost, outermost or uttermost ; up, 
upper, upmost or uppermost; low, lower, lowest or lowermost ; late, later, or 
latter, latest or last. 

II. The following five want the positive : [aft, adv., J after, aftmost, or af- 
termost; [forth, adv.,] further, furthest or furthermost ; hither, hithermost ; 
nether, nethermost ; under, undermost. 

III. The following want the comparative : front, frontmost ; rear, rear- 
most ; head, headmost ; end, endmost ; top, topmost ; bottom, bottommost ; mid 
or middle, midst, midmost or middlemost ; north, northmost ; south, south- 
most ; northern, northernmost ; southern, southernmost ; eastern, easternmost ; 
western, westernmost. 

Obs. 2. — Many of these irregular adjectives are also ia common use, as 
nouns, adverbs, or prepositions ; the sense in which they are employed will 
show to what class they belong. 

Obs. 3. — The words fore and hind, front and rear, head and end, right and 
left, in and out, high and loiv, top and bottom, up and down, upper and under, 
mid and after, are often joined in composition with other words ; and some 
of them, when used as adjectives of place, are rarely separated from their 
nouns ; as, inland, mid-sea, after-ages, &c. 

Obs. 4. — It may be remarked of the comparatives, former and latter or 
hinder, upper and under or nether, inner and outer or utter, after and hither ; 
as well as of the Latin superior and mferior, anterior and posterior, interior 
and exterior, prior and ulterior, senior and junior, major and minor; that 
they cannot, like other comparatives, be construed with the conjunction 
than, introdcuing the latter term of comparison ; for we never say, one thing 
is former, superior, &c, than an other. 

Obs. 5. — Common adjectives, or epithets denoting quality, are more numer- 
ous than all the other classes put together. Many of these, and a few that 
are pronominal, may be varied by comparison ; and some participial adjec- 
tives may be compared by means of the adverbs. But adjectives formed 
from proper names, all the numerals, and most of the compounds, are in no 
way susceptible of comparison. 

Obs. 6. — Nouns are often used as adjectives ; as, An iron bar — An evening 
school — A mahogany chair — A South-Sea dream. These also are incapable 
of comparison. 

Obs. 7. — The numerals are often used as nouns ; and, as such, are regularly 
declined; as, Such a one — One's own self — The little ones — By tens — For 
twenty's sake — By fifties — Two millions. 

Obs. 8. — Comparatives, and the word other, are sometimes also employed 
as nouns, and have the regular declension; as, Our superiors — His betters — 
The elder's advice — An* others wo — Let others do as they will. But, as ad- 
jectives, these words are invariable. 

Obs. 9. — -Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are expressed, simply 
relate to them, and have no modifications : except this and that, which form 

* There seems to be no good reason for joining an and other. An here excludes 
any other article ; and analogy and consistency require that the words be separated. 
Their union has led sometimes to an improper repetition of the article ; as, ' Another 
such a man,'— for, ' An other such man.' 



CHAP. IV.] ETYMOLOGY. — ANALYSIS. 59 

the plural these and those • and much, many, and a few others, which are 
compared. 

Obs. 10. — Pronominal adjectives, when their nouns are not expressed, may 
be parsed as representing them in person, number \ gender, and case : hut 
those who prefer it, may supply the ellipsis, and parse the adjective simply 
as an adjective. 

Obs. 11.— The following are the principal pronominal adjectives: All, any, 
loth, certain, divers, each, either, else, enough, every, few, former, first, latter, 
last, little, less, least, much, many, more, most, neither, no' or none,* one, only, 
other, own, sam,e, several, some, such, this, that, these, those, which, what. 

Obs. 12.— Which and what, when they are not prefixed to nouns, arc, for 
the most part, relative or interrogative pronouns, 



ANALYSIS 

Words, added to any other word in the sentence to 
modify or limit its meaning, are called adjuncts. Ad- 
juncts are sometimes called modifications. 

They are divided into two classes, primary and sec- 
ondary adjuncts. 

Primary adjuncts are those added directly to either of 
the principal parts; as, " Good books always deserve a 
careful perusal." 

Secondary adjuncts are those added to other adjuncts ; 
as, " Suddenly acquired wealth very rarely brings happi- 
ness." 

Adjuncts are divided, with respect to their office, into 
three classes ; namely, adjective, adverbial, and explan- 
atory. 

An adjective adjunct is one used to modify or limit a 
noun or a pronoun ; as, " Both those bad boys deserve 
severe punishment." 

An adverbial adjunct is one used like an adverb ; as, 
" Eemember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth.' 1 '' 

An explanatory adjunct is one used to explain a pre- 
ceding noun or pronoun ; as, " The emperor Napoleon 
was banished." — " We, the people, ordain this constitu- 
tion." 

The subject or the object in a sentence, may be modified by 
adjective or explanatory adjuncts of various forms ; as, 

* No and none seem to be only different forms of the same adjective ; the former 
being used before a noun expressed, and the latter when the noun is understood, or 
not placed after the adjective ; as. "For none of us liveth to himself, and no man 
dieth to himself,'' — Romans, xiv. 7. 



60 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 

1. By an article or an adjective ; as, " The diligent scholar 

improves." 

2. By a noun or pronoun in the possessive case ; as, 

William'' s sister has lost her book." 

3. By a verb used as an adjective ; as, " The desire • to 

excel is laudable." 

4. By a preposition and its object, used together as an 

adjective ; as, "A man of integrity obeys the dictates 
of conscience. 11 

5. By a noun or pronoun used as an explanatory adjunct ; 

as, " His brother, Charles, is idle." 
The predicate of a sentence may be modified by adverbial 
adjuncts of various forms ; as, 

1. By an adverb ; as, " The sun shin,es brightly" 

2. By a preposition and its object, used together as an 

adverb; as, " He came/rom Boston" 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 
PRAXIS III. — ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In the Third Praxis, it is required oj the pupil — to classify 
and analyze the sentence as in the preceding praxis y to point 
out, in addition, the adjuncts of each of the principal parts, 
and distinguish their classes ; and to parse the sentence by 
distinguishing the different parts of speech, and. the classes 
and modifications of the nouns, and adjectives, distinguish- 
ing also the article as definite or indefinite. Thus: — 

EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED. 

" The Athenians carefully observed Solon's wise laws." 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The subject is Athenians ; the predicate, observed ; the object, laws. 

The subject is limited by the adjective adjunct, the ; the predicate is modi- 
fied by the adverbial adjunct, carefully ; and the object is modified by 
the adjective adjuncts, Solon's and wise. 
Passing. — The is the definite article, because it limits the noun Athenians. 

Athenians is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular people. 
(Modifications as in the preceding praxis.) 

Carefully is an adverb, because it is added to the verb observed, and ex- 
presses manner. 

Observed is a verb, because it expresses action. 

Solon's is a proper noun, because it is the name of a particular individual; 
it is of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and in 
the possessive case, because it indicates the possession of laws. 

Wise is a common adjective, because it simply expresses the quality of 
laws. 

Laws is a common noun, because it is the name of a class of things. 



CHAP. V.] ETYMOLOGY. — PRONOUNS. 61 

Pleasure's call always wins an eager attention. 

Avarice rapidly extinguishes every generous emotion. 

King Belshazzar made a great feast. 

Every person highly praised William's noble conduct. 

Where did your kind father buy that interesting book ? 

The French ambassador immediately presented his cre- 
dentials. 

This benevolent young lady kindly teaches many poor children. 

Riotous indulgence rapidly destroys the bodily vigor. 

This enterprising merchant has just returned from Europe. 

The study of astronomy greatly elevates the mind. 

Indulgence in sloth can never lead to prosperity. 

Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. 

The beautiful prospects of nature always excite the warmest 
admiration of mankind. 

The powerful eloquence of Demosthenes excited the fierce 
indignation of Athens against Philip of Macedon. 



CHAPTER V.— OF PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun : as, 
The boy loves his book; he has long lessons, and he 
learns them well. 

Obs. 1. — The word for which a pronoun stands, is called its antecedent \ 
because it usually precedes the pronoun. But some have limited the term 
antecedent, to the word represented by a relative. 

Obs. 2. — The pronouns / and thou in their different modifications, stand 
immediately for persons that are, in general, sufficiently known without be- 
ing named; (/meaning the speaker, and thou the hearer;) their antecedents 
are therefore generally understood. 

Obs. 3. — The other personal pronouns are sometimes taken in a general 
or absolute sense, to denote persons or things not previously mentioned ; as, 
"He that hath knowledge, spareth his words." 

Obs. 4. — A pronoun with which a question is asked, stands for some per- 
son or thing unknown to the speaker ; the noun, therefore, cannot occur 
before it, but may be used after it or instead of it. 

Obs. 5. — The personal and the interrogative pronouns often stand in con- 
struction as tbe antecedents to other pronouns ; as, He that arms his intent 
with virtue is invincible." — " Who that has any moral sense, dares tell lies V* 

CLASSES. 

Pronouns are divided into three classes ; personal, rel- 
ative, and interrogative. 

I. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that shows, by its 
form, of what person it is. 

The simple personal pronouns are five : namely, ij of 



62 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IL 

the first person ; thou, of the second person ; he, she, and 
it, of the third person. 

The compound personal pronouns are also five : name- 
ly, myself, of the first person ; thyself, of the second per- 
son ; himself herself and itself, of the third person. 

II. A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents an 
antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses 
of a sentence. 

The relative pronouns are who, which, what, and that ; 
and the compounds whoever or whosoever, whichever or 
whichsoever, whatever or whatsoever. 

What is a kind of double relative, equivalent to that 
or those which; and is to be parsed, first as antecedent, and 
then as relative. 

III. An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun with which 
a question is asked. 

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what ; 
being the same in form as relatives. 

Obs 1. — Who is usually applied to persons only; which, though formerly 
applied to persons, is now confined to animals and inanimate things . what 
(as a mere pronoun) is applied to things only : that is applied indifferently 
to persons, animals, or things, 

Obs. 2. — The pronoun what has a twofold relation, and is often used (by 
ellipsis of the noun) both as antecedent and relative, being equivalent to that 
which, or the thing which. In this double relation, what represents two cases 
at the same time : as, " He is ashamed of what he has clone ;" that is, of that 
[thing] which he ha3 done. It is usually of the singular number, though 
sometimes plural ; as, " I must turn to the faults, or what appear such to 
me." — Byron. " All distortions and mimicries, as such, are what raise aver- 
sion in stead of pleasure. — Steele. 

Obs. 3. — What is sometimes used both as an adjective and a relative at the 
same time, and is placed before the noun which it represents : as, " What 
money we had was taken away ;" that is, All the money that we had, &c. 

" What man but enters, dies ;" that is, Any man who, &c. " What god 

but enters yon forbidden field." — Pope. Indeed, it does not admit of being 
construed after a noun, as a simple relative. The compound whatever or 
whatsoever has the same peculiarities of construction ; as, " We will certainly 
do whatsoever thing goeth forth out of 'our own mouth." — Jer., xliv, 17. 

Obs. 4. — Who, which, and what, when the affix ever or soever is added, 
have an unlimited signification ; and, as some general term, such as any 
person, or any thing, is usually employed as the antecedent, they are all com- 
monly followed by two verbs : as, " Whoever attends, will improve;" that 
is, Any person who attends, will improve. In parsing, supply the antecedent. 

Obs. 5. — Which and what are often prefixed to nouns as definitive or inter- 
rogative adjectives ; and, as such, may be applied to persons as well as to 
things : as, " What man ?"— « Which boy?" 

Obs. 6. — The word that is a relative pronoun, when it is equivalent to who, 
whom, or tohich ; as, " The days that [which] are past, are gone forever." It 
is a- definitive or pronominal adjective, when it relates to a noun expressed 
or understood after it ; as, " That book is new." In other cases, it is a con- 
junction, as, " Live well, that you may die well." 

Obs. 7. — The relative that has this peculiarity, that it cannot follow tho 
Word on which its case depends: thus, it ia said, [John, xiii, 29,] "Buy 



CHAP. V.] ETFMOLOGY— PRONOUNS.— MODIF. 63 

those things that we have need off hut we cannot say, " Buy those things 
of that we have need." 

Obs. 8. — The word as, though usually a conjunction or an adverb, has 
sometimes the construction of a relative pronoun; as, "The Lord added to 
the church daily such [persons] as should be saved." — Acts, ii, 47. 

Obs. 9.— Whether was formerly used as an interrogative pronoun, refer- 
ring to one of two things ; as, " Whether is greater, the gold or the temple ?" 
—Matt., xxiii, 17. 

Obs. 10. — Interrogative pronouns differ from relatives chiefly in this ; that, 
as the subject referred to is unknown to the speaker, they do not relate to a 
preceding^ noun, but to something which is to be expressed in the answer to 
the question. Their person, nuniber, and gender, therefore, are not regulated 
by an antecedent noun ; but by what the speaker supposes of a subject which 
may, or may not, agree with them in these respects : as, " What lies there V 
Ans. " Two men asleep." 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Pronouns have the same modifications as nouns; 
namely, Persons, Numbers, Genders, and Cases. 

Obs. 1. — In the personal pronouns, most of these properties are distin- 
guished by the words themselves ; in the relative and the interrogative pro- 
nouns, they aro ascertained chiefly by the antecedent and the verb. 

Obs. 2. — The personal pronouns of the first and second persons, are equally 
applicable to both sexes ; and should be considered masculine or feminine 
according to the known application of them. [See Levizac's French Gram., 
p. 73.] The speaker and the hearer, being present to each other, of course 
know the sex to which they respectively belong ;. and, whenever they ap- 
pear in narrative, we are told who they are. In Latin, an adjective or a par- 
ticiple relating to these pronouns, is varied to agree with them in number, 
gender, and case ; as, 

Miserce hoc tamen unum 

Exequere, Anna, mihi : solam nam perfidus ille 

Te colere, arcanos etiam tibi credere sensus ; 

Sola viri molles aditus et tempora' noras. — Virgil. 
Obs. 3. — Many grammarians deny the first person of nouns, and the gen- 
der of pronouns of the first and second persons ; and at the same time teach, 
that, " Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the nouns for 
Which they stand, in gender, number, and person." — Murray's Gram., 2d Ed., 
1796. Now, no two words can agree in any property which belongs not to 
both! 

THE DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 

The declension of a pronoun is a regular arrangement of its 
numbers and cases. 

SIMPLE PERSONALS. 

The simple personal pronouns are thus declined : — 

I, of the first person, any* of the genders. 

Sing. Nom. I, Plur. Nom. we, 

Poss. my, or mine, Poss. our, or ours, 

Obj. me; Obj. us. 

* That the pronouns of the first and second persons are sometimes masculine and 
sometimes feminine, is perfectly certain ; but whether they can or cannot be neuter, 
is a question difficult to be decided. To things inanimate they are only applied figur* 



64 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 

Thou, of the second person, any of the genders. 
Sing. Nom. thou, Plur. Nom. ye,* or you, 

Poss. thy, or thine, Poss. your, or yours, 

Obj. thee; Obj. you* 

He, of the third person, masculine gender. 
Sing. Nom. he, Plur. Nom. they, 

Poss. his, Poss. their, or theirs, 

Obj. him; Obj. them. 

She, of the third person, feminine gender. 
Sing. Nom. she, Plur. Nom. they, 

Poss. her, or hers, Poss. their, or theirs, 

Obj. her; Obj. them. 

It, of the third person, neuter gender. 

Sing. Nom. it, Plur. Nom. they, 

Poss. its,j- Poss. their, or theirs, 

Obj. it; Obj. them. 

Obs. 1. — Most of the personal pronouns have two forms of the possessive 
case, in each number; as, my or mine, our or ours ; thy or thine, you or 
yours; her or hers, their or theirs. The former is used before a noun ex- 
pressed ; the latter, when the governing noun is understood, or so placed as 
not immediately to follow the pronoun ; as, " My powers are thine. — Mont- 
gomery. 

Obs. 2. — Mine and thme were formerly used before all words beginning 
with a vowel sound ; my and thy, before others : as, " It was thou, a man, 
mine equal, my guide, and mine acquaintance." — Psalm, But this usage is 
now obsolete, or peculiar to the poets ; as, 

" Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow." — Byron. 

COMPOUND PERSONALS. 

The word self I added to the simple personal pronouns, 
forms the class of compound personal pronouns ; which are 
used when an action reverts upon the agent, and also when 

atively; and the question is, whether the figure always necessarily changes the .sen- 
der of the antecedent noun. Pronouns are of the same gender as the nouns for which 
they stand; and if, in the following example, gold and diamond are neuter, so is tha 
pronoun me. And, if not neuter, of what gender are they ? 

" Where thy true treasure ? Gold says, ' Not in me; ' 
And, ' Not in me,' the diamond. Gold is poor.'' — Young. 

* The use of the pronoun ye is mostly confined to the solemn style, and to the 
"burlesque. In the latter, it is sometimes used for the objective case. 

t In ancient times, he, his, and him, were applied to things neuter. In onr trans- 
lation of the Bible, the pronoun it is employed in the nominative and the objective, 
but Ids is retained in the possessive, neuter; as, "Look not thou upon the wine, 
when it is red, when it giveth his color in the cup, when it moveth itself aright." — 
Prov., xxiii, 31. Its is not found in the Bible, except by misprint. 

i The word self was originally an adjective; but when used alone, it is now gen- 
erally a noun. This may have occasioned the diversity in the formation of the 
compound personal pronouns. Dr. Johnson calls t>elf a pronoun ; but he explains 
it as being adjective and substantive. 



CHAP. V.] ETYMOLOGY.- PKONOUNS.— DECLENSION. 65 

some persons are to be distinguished from others : as, sing. 
myself, plur. ourselves; sing, thyself plur. yourselves ; sing. 
himself* plur. themselves; sing, herself plur. themselves; sing. 
itself plur. themselves. They all want the possessive case, and 
are alike in the nominative and objective. 

RELATIVES AND INTERROGATI VES. 

The relative and the interrogative pronouns are thus de- 
clined : — 

Who, applied only to persons. 
Sing. Nom. who, Plur. Nom. who, 

Poss. whose, Poss. whooe, 

Obj. whom; Obj. whom, 

Which, applied to animals and things. 
Sing. Nom. which, Plur. Nom. which, 

Poss. f Poss. 

Obj. which ; Obj. which. 

What, generally applied to things. 
Sing. Nom. what, Plur. Nom. what, 

Poss. Poss. 

Obj. what; Obj. what. 

That, applied to persons, animals, and things. 
Sing. Nom. that, Plur. Nom. that, 

Poss. ■ Poss. 

Obj. that; Obj. that. 

COMPOUND RELATIVES. 

The compound relative pronouns, whoever or whosoever, 
whichever or whichsoever, and whatever or whatsoever, are de- 
clined in the same manner as the simples, who, which, what. 



ANALYSIS. 



A clause is a sentence that forms a part of another sen- 
tence. Clauses are either dependent or independent. 
A dependent clause is one used as an adjunct, or as 

* ZTisseif, itsself, and theirselves, are more analogical than himself, itsself, them- 
selves ; but custom has rejected the former, and established the latter. When an ad- 
jective is prefixed to self, the pronouns are written separately m tbe possessive case ; 
as, My single self, — My own self, — His own self, — Their own selves. 

t Whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which; as, "A religion whose 
origin is divine."— Blair. 

6* 



66 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 

one of the principal parts of a sentence. The clause on 
which it depends, is called the principal clause. 

Clauses may be connected by conjunctions, relative 
pronouns, or adverbs. 

A complex sentence is one composed of a principal 
clause, and one or more dependent clauses. 

A compound sentence is one composed of two or more 
independent clauses. 

Compound or complex clauses are sometimes called 

members. 

Obs. — A clause introduced by a relative pronoun, is often called a relative 
clause ; it may be dependent or independent ; thus the sentence, " This is 
the man who committed the deed" is complex ; because the relative clause is 
an adjunct of man, modifying it like an adjective ; but " i gave the book to 
John, who has lost it," is a compound sentence, the relative clause not being 
an adjunct, but expressing an additional fact, and equivalent to " and he has 
lost it." 

EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 
PRAXIS IV. — ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In the Fourth Praxis, it is required of the pupil — to clas- 
sify the sentences y to point out the component clauses y to 
analyze and parse each as in the preceding praxis y and to 
state the classes and modifications of the pronouns. Thus : — 

EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED. 

*' Children who disobey their parents, deserve punishment." 

Analysis.— This is a complex declarative sentence ; the principal clause is, 
Children deserve punishment, and the dependent clause is, Who disobey 
their parents, an adjective adjunct of children ; the connective word 
is who. 
The subject of the principal clause is children ; the predicate is deserve ; 
and the object is punishment. The adjunct of the subject is the de- 
pendent clause ; the other parts have no adjuncts. The subject of the 
dependent clause is who ; the predicate is disobey ; the object is 
parents. The subject ana the predicate have no adjuncts ; the ad- 
junct of parents is their. 
Passing. — Who is a relative pronoun, because it represents the antecedent 
word children, and connects the two clauses of the sentence • it is of 
the third person, because it represents the persons spoken of; of the 
plural number, because it denotes more than one ; of the masculine 
gender, because it is a term equally applicable to both sexes (see 
Obs. 3, page 51) ;* and in the nominative case, because it is the subject 
of the verb disobey ; its declension in both numbers is, Norn, who; 
Poss. whose ; Obj. whom. 
Their is a personal pronoun, because it shows by its form that it is of the 

■ ■ • ' 

* It would be preferable, in the opinion of the editor of these exercises, to desig- 
nate this the common gender, there being no reason to consider the masculine gen- 
der more " worthy" than the feminine. Besides, gender is not a distinction of objects 
os to sex, but a distinction of words with respect to the sex which they denote; 
and therefore such words as belong, in common, to both sexes, are manifestly of tna 
common gender. 



CHAP. VL ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CLASSES. 67 

third person ; it is of the plural number, masculine gender, and in 
the possessive case, because it denotes the possession of parents, Ita 
declension is, Nom. they, Poss. their, o; theirs, Obj. them. 
(Parse the other words as in the preceding praxes.) 
He who conquers his passions, overcomes his greatest enemies. 
Every teacher must love a pupil who evinces a love of study. 
Savages who have no settled abode, wander from place to place. 
Avoid rudeness of manners, which always hurts the feelings of 
others. A good reader will often make a pause, where no gram- 
marian would place a point. He who, in nature, recognizes the 
Creator's hand, will ever survey its varied scenes with reverence. 
The poems of Homer celebrate the exploits of Achilles, who 
Blew the Trojan prince, Hector. Prosperity gains many friends, 
but adversity tries them. I disregard their imputations, be- 
cause I do not merit them. When he had sold his patrimony, 
he engaged in traffic. 



CHAPTER VL— OF YEEBS. 

A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to he 
acted upon: as, I am, I rule, I am ruled; I love, thou 
lovest, he loves. 

CLASSES. 

Verbs are divided, with respect to their form, into four 
classes; regular, irregular, redundant, and defective. 

I. A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and 
the perfect participle by assuming d ored; as, love, lovED, 
loving, lovEB. 

II. .An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the 
preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed ; 
as, see, saw, seeing, seen. 

HI. A redundant verb is a verb that forms the preterit 
or the perfect participle in two or more ways, and so as 
to be both regular and irregular ; as, thrive, thrived or 
throve, thriving, thrived or thriven. 

IV. A defective verb is a verb that forms no participles, 
and is used in but few of the moods and tenses ; as, be- 
ware, ought, quoth. 

Obs .— Eegular verbs form their preterit and perfect participle, by adding 
d to final e, and ed to all other terminations. The verb hear, heard, hearing* 
heard, adds d to r, and is therefore irregular. 



63 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 

Yerbs -are divided again, with respect to their signijv 
cation, into four classes ; active-transitive, active-intransitive- 
passive, and neuter. 

I. An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an 
action which has some person or thing for its object*, as, 
"Cain slew Abel" 

II. An active-intransitive verb is a verb that expresses 
an action which has no person or thing for its object; 
as, "John walks." 

III. A passive verb is a verb that represents its subject, 
or nominative, as being acted upon; as, "I am com- 
pelled J 1 

IV. A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither ac- 
tion nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being ; 
as, " Thou art" — " He sleeps." 

Obs. 1. — In most grammars and dictionaries, verbs are divided into three 
classes only; active, passive, and neuter. In such a division, the class of ac- 
tive verbs includes those only which are active-transitive, and all the active- 
intransitive verbs are calied neuter. But, in the division adopted above, 
active-mtransitiveverbs are made a distinct class ; and those only are regarded 
as neuter, which imply a state of existence without action. When, there- 
fore, we speak of verbs without reference to their regimen, we apply the 
simple term active to all those which express action, whether transitive or 
intransitive. " We act whenever we do any thing ; but we may act without 
doing any thing." — CrabVs Synonymes. 

Obs. 2. — Active-transitive verbs generally take the agent before them and 
the object after them ; as, " Csesar conqueredJ* om^ey" Passive verbs (which 
are derived from active-transitive verbs) reverse this order, and denote that 
the subject, or nominative, is affected by the action ; and the agent follows, 
being introduced by the preposition by i as, "Pompey was conquered by 
Caesar." 

Obs. 3. — Most active verbs may be used either transitively or intransitively. 
Active verbs are transitive when there is any person or thing expressed or 
clearly implied, upon which the action terminates; when they do not govern 
such an object, they are intransitive. 

Obs. 4. — Some verbs may be used either in an active or a neuter sense. 
In the sentence, " Here I rest," rest is a neuter verb ; but in the sentence, 
'• Here I rest my hopes," rest is an active-transitive verb, and governs hopes. 

Obs. 5. — An active-intransitive verb, followed by a preposition and its ob- 
ject, will sometimes admit of being put into the passive form, the object of 
the preposition being assumed for the nominative, and the preposition being 
retained with the verb, as an adverb : as, {Active,) " They laughed at him." 
i— (Passive,) "He was laughed at." 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Yerbs have modifications of four kinds ; namely, Moods, 
Tenses, Persons, and Numbers. 

MOODS. 

Moods are different forms of the verb, each of which 



CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— MOODS. 69 

expresses the being, action, or passion, in some particular 
manner. 

There are five moods; the Infinitive, the Indicative, 
the Potential, the Subjunctive, and the Imperative. 

The Infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which 
expresses the being, action, or passion, in an unlimited 
manner, and without person or number : as, To read, to 



The Indicative mood is that form of the verb, which 
simply indicates, or declares a thing: as, I write ; you 
know: or asks a question; as, Do you know? 

The Potential mood is that form of the verb, which ex- 
presses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity, of the 
being, action, or passion: as, I can read; we must go. 

The Subjunctive mood is that form of the verb, which 
represents the being, action, or passion, as conditional, 
doubtful, and contingent : as, " If thou go, see that thou 
offend not." 

The Imperative mood is that form of the verb, which 
is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or per- 
mitting: as, "Depart thou." — "Be comforted? 1 — "Forgive 
me." — "Go in peace." 

Obs. 1. — The infinitive mood is distinguished by the preposition to, which, 
with a few exceptions, immediately precedes it. In dictionaries, to is gen- 
erally prefixed to verbs, to distinguish them from other parts of speech. A 
verb in any other mood than the infinitive, is called, by way of distinction, 



verb. 



Obs. 2. — The potential mood is known by the signs may, can, must, might, 
could, would, and should. This mood as well as the indicative may be used 
in asking a question ; as. Must we go ? 

Obs. 3. — The subjunctive mood is always connected with an other verb. 
Its dependence is usually denoted by a conjunction ; as, if, that, though, lest, 



Obs. 4. — The indicative and potential moods, in all their tenses, may be 
used in the same dependent manner ; but this seems not to be a sufficient 
reason for considering them as parts of the subjunctive mood.* 

* In regard to the number and form of the tenses which should constitute the sub- 
junctive mood in English, grammarians are greatly at variance ; and some, supposing its 
distinctive parts to be but elliptical forms of the indicative or the potential, even deny 
the existence of such a mood altogether. On this point, the instructions published by 
Lindley Murray are exceedingly vague and inconsistent. The early editions of his 
Grammar gave to this mood six tenses, none of which had any of the personal inflec- 
tions ; consequently there was, in all the tenses, some difference between it and the 
indicative. His later editions make the subjunctive exactly like the indicative, except 
in the present tense, and in the choice of auxiliaries for the second-future. Both ways 
he goes too far. And while at last he restricts the distinctive form, of the subjunctive 
to narrower bounds than he ought, and argues against, If thou loved, If thou knew, 
&c, he gives this mood not only the last five tenses of the indicative, but also all those 
of the potential; alleging, " that as the indicative mood is converted into the subjunc- 
tive, by the expression of a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c. being superadded 
to it, so the potential mood may, in like manner, be turned into the subjunctive."— 
Mur. Grram r) Oct., p. 82. According to this,the subjunctive mood of every regular 



70 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 

TENSES. 

Tenses are those modifications of the verb, which dis< 
tinguish time. 

There are six tenses; the Present, the Imperfect, ths 
Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First-future, and the Second- 
future. 

The Present tense is that which expresses what now 
exists, or is taking place : as, a I hear a noise ; somebody 
is coming. 11 

The Imperfect tense is that which expresses what took 
place, or was occurring, in time fully past: as, "I saw 
him yesterday ; he was walking out." 

The Perfect tense is that which expresses what has 
taken place, within some period of time not yet fully past : 
as, "I have seen him to-day." 

The Pluperfect tense is that which expresses what had 
taken place, at "some past time mentioned: as, "Iliad 
seen him, when I met you." 

The First-future tense is that which expresses what 
will take place hereafter : as, "I shall see him again." 

The Second-future tense is that which expresses what 
will have taken place, at some future time mentioned : as, 
" I shall have seen him by to-morrow noon." 

Obs. 1. — The terms here defined are the names usually given to those parts 
of the verb to which they are in this work applied ; and though some of 
them are not so strictly appropriate as scientific names ought to be, we think 
it inexpedient to change them. 

Obs. 2. — The tenses do not all express time with equal precision. Those 
of the indicative mood, are the most definite. The time expressed by the 
same tenses (or what are called by the same names) in the other moods, is 
frequently relative, and sometimes indefinite. 

Obs. 3. — The present tense, in the indicative mood, expresses general 
truths, and customary actions; as, "Vice produces misery." — "She often 

verb embraces, in one voice, as many as one hundred and thirty-eight different expres- 
sions; and it may happen that in one single tense a verb shall have no fewer than 
fifteen different forms in each person and number. Six times fifteen are ninety; and 
so many are the several phrases which now compose Murray's pluperfect tense of the 
subjunctive mood of the verb to strow — a tense which most grammarians very prop- 
erly reject as needless! But this is not all. The scheme not only confounds the 
moods, and overwhelms the learner with its multiplicity, but condemns as bad English 
what the author himself once adopted as the imperfect subjunctive, "If thou loved," 
&c, wherein lie was sustained by Dr. Priestly and others of high authority. Dr. John- 
son, indeed, made the preterit subjunctive like the indicative; and this may have in- 
duced the author to change his plan, and inflect this part of the verb with St. But Dr. 
Alexander Murray very positively declares this to be wrong: " When such words as 
if, though, unless, except, whether, and the like, are used before vertn, they lose their 
terminations of est, eth, and s, in those persons which commonly have them. No 
speaker of good English, expressing himself conditionally, says, Though thou f attest, 
or Though lie falls, hut, Though thou fall, and Though' he fall ; not Though thou 
earnest, but Though, or although, thou came:' —Hist, Europ. Lang,, Vol. i. p. 56. 



CKAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— PER. AND NUM. 71 

visits us." We also use it in speaking of persons who are dead, but whostt 
works remain, as, " Seneca reasons -well." 

Obs. 4. — The present tense in the subjunctive mood, and in the other 
moods when preceded by as soon as, after, before, till, or when, is generally 
used with reference to future time ; as, " If be ask a fish, will he give him a 
serpent?"— Matt., vi, 10. " When he arrives, 1 will send for you^ 

Obs. 5. — In animated narrative, the present tense is sometimes substituted 
(by the figure enallage) for the imperfect; as, "As he lay indulging himself 
in state, he sees Jet down from the ceiling a glittering sword, hung by a single 
hair." — Tr. of Cicero. " Ulysses wakes, not knowing where he was." — Pope. 

Obs. 6. — The present infinitive can scarcely be said to express any partic- 
ular time. It is usually dependent on an other verb, and, therefore, relative 
in time. It may be connected with any tense of any mood ; as, "I intend 
to do it, I intended to do it, I have intended to do it;" &c. It is often used 
to express futurity ; as, " The time to come.' 1 ' 1 — " The world to come.' 1 '' — " Rap- 
ture yet to bey 

Obs. 7.— The imperfect tense of the indicative mood, in its simple form, is 
called the preterit ; as, loved, saw, was. 

Obs. 8. — The perfect tense, like the present, is sometimes used with refer- 
ence to future time ; as, " He will be fatigued before he has walked a mile." 

Obs. 9. — The pluperfect tense is often used conditionally, without a con- 
junction ; as, "Had I seen you, I should have stopped." 

PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 

The person and number of a verb, are those modifica- 
tions in. which it agrees with its subject or nominative. 

In each number, there are three persons ; and in each 
person, two numbers : thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1st per. I love, 1st per. We love, 

2d per. Thou lovest, 2d per. You love, 

8d per. He loves ; 3d per. They love. 

Obs. 1. — Thus the verb in some of its parts, varies its termination to dis- 
tinguish, or agree with, the different persons and numbers. The change is, 
however, principally confined to the second and third persons singular or 
the present tense of the indicative mood, and to the auxiliaries hasi'and has 
of the perfect. In the ancient biblical style, now used only on solemn oc- 
casions, the second person singular is distinguished through all the tenses 
of the indicative and potential moods. And as the use of the pronoun thou, 
is now mostly confined to the solemn style, the terminations of that style 
are retained in all our examples of the conjugation of verbs. In the plural 
number, there is no variation of ending, to denote the different persons ; and 
the verb in the three persons plural, is the same as in the first person sin- 
gular. As the verb is always attended by a noun or a pronoun, expressing 
the subject of the affirmation, no ambiguity arises from the want of particular 
terminations in the verb to distinguish the different persons and numbers. 

Obs. 2. — Persons in high stations, being usually surrounded by attendants^ 
it became, many centuries ago, a species of court flattery, to address indi- 
viduals of this class, in the plural number. And the practice extended, in 
time, to all ranks of society: so that, at present the customary mode of 
familiar as well as complimentary address, is altogether plural ; both the 
verb and the pronoun being used in that form. This practice, which con- 
founds one of the most important distinctions of the language, affords a 
striking instance of the power of fashion. The society of Friends, or Quakers* 



72 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 

however, continue to employ the singular number in familiar discourse ; and 
custom, winch has now destroyed the compliment of the plural, has placed 
the appropriate form, (at least as regards them,) on an equality with the 
plural in point of respect. The singular is universally employed in reference 
to the Supreme Being ; and is generally preferred m poetry. It is the lan- 
guage of Scripture, and is consistently retained in all our grammars. 

Obs. 3.— As most of the peculiar terminations by which the second person 
singular of verhs is properly distinguished in the solemn style, are not only 
difficult of utterance, but are quaint and formal in conversation ; the preterits 
and auxiliaries are seldom varied in familiar discourse, and the present is 
generally simplified by contraction. A distinction between the solemn and 
the familiar style, has long been admittetl, in the pronunciation of the term- 
ination e.d y and in the ending of the verb in the third person singular ; and 
it is evidently according to good taste and the best usage, to admit such a 
distinction in the second person singular. In the familiar use of the second 
person singular, the verb is usually varied only in the present tense of the 
indicative mood, and in the auxiliary hast of the perfect. This method of 
varying the verb renders the second person singular analogous to the third, 
and accords with the practice of the most intelligent of those who retain the 
common use of this distinctive and consistent mode of address. It disen- 
cumbers their familiar dialect of a multitude of harsh and usele&s termina- 
tions, which serve only, when uttered, to give an uncouth prominency to 
words not often emphatic ; and, without impairing the strength or perspicu- 
ity of the language, increases its harmony, and reduces the form of the verb 
in the second person singular nearly to the same simplicity as in the other 
persons and numbers.* 

* The writings of the Friends being mostly of a grave cast, afford but few examples 
of their customary mode of forming the verb in connection with the pronoun thou, in 
familiar discourse. The following may serve to illustrate it : " To devote all thou had 
to his service;"— "If thou should come;' 1 — "What thou said;''' — "Thou kindly con-' 
tributed ;" — "The Epistle which thou sent me ;"— "Thou would perhaps allow;'''' — 
"If thou submitted ;"—*' Since thou left ,•"— " Should thou act;""— "Thou may be 
ready; 1 '— "That thou had met;" — "That thou had intimated;' 1 '' — " Before thou puts' 1 '' 
[putst];— " What thou 'meets" [meetst]; — "If thou had made;"— "I observed thou 
was ;"— " That thou might put thy trust;" -"Thou had been at my house." — J. Ken- 
dall. " Thou may be plundered ,•"— " That thou may feel ;"— " Though thou waited 
long, and sought him;"— "I hope thou will bear my style;"— "Thou also knows" 
[knowst] : — " Thou grew up :"— " I wish thou would yet take my counsel. 1, — S. Crisp. 
"Thou manifested thy tender regard, stretched forth thy delivering hand, and fed 
and sustained us " — S. Fothergill. The writer has met with thousands that use tho 
second person singular in conversation, but never with one that employed, on ordi- 
nary occasions, all the regular endings of the solemn style. The simplification of tho 
second person singular, which, to a greater or less extent, is everywhere adopted by 
the Friends, and which is here defined and explained, removes from each verb eight- 
een of these peculiar terminations; and, (jf the number of English verbs be, as stated 
by several grammarians, 8000,) disburdens their familiar dialect of 144,000 of theso 
awkward and useless appendages. This simplification is supported by usage as exten- 
sive as the familiar use of the pronoun thou; and is also in accordance with the can- 
ons of criticism. "All words and phrases which are remarkably harsh and unhar- 
monious, and not absolutely necessary, should be rejected." — Campbell's Philosophy 
of Rhetoric, B. II, Chap, ii, Sec, 2, Canon Sixth. With the subject of this note, 
those who put you for thou, can have no concern ; and many may think it unworthy 
of notice, because Murray has said nothing about it. We write not for or against 
any sect, or any man ; but to teach ail who desire to know the grammar of our tongue. 
And who is he that will pretend that the solemn style of the Bible may be used in fa- 
miliar discourse, without a mouthing affectation?' In preaching, the ancient termi- 
nations of est for the second person singular and eth for the third, as well as ed pro- 
nounced as a separate syllable for the preterit, are admitted to be in better taste than 
the smoother forms of the familiar style ; because the latter, though now frequently 
heard in religious assemblies, are not so well suited to the dignity and gravity of a 
sermon or a prayer. In grave poetry also, especially when it treats of scriptural sub- 
jects, to which you put for thou is obviously unsuitable, the personal terminations of 
the verb, which from the earliest times to the present day Save usually been contracted 
and often omitted by the poets, ought perhaps still to be insisted on, agreeably to tho 
notion of our tuneless critics. The critical objection to their ellision, however, can 
have no very firm foundation while it is admitted by the objectors themselves,, that, 



CHAP, tl] etymology.— verbs —per. and num. 73 

Where the verb is varied, the second person singular is 

regularly formed by adding si or est to the first person; anci 

the third person singular, in like manner, by adding s or es : 

as, I see, thou seest, he sees ; I give, thou givest, he gives ; I go, 

thou goest, he goes ; I y?y, thou fliest, he flies ; I ve#, thou 

vexest, he vexes ; I Zose, thou losest, he /oses. 

Obs. 1.— In the solemn style, (except in Poetry, which usually contracts* 
these forms.) the second person singular of the present indicative, and that 
of the irregular preterits,t commonly end in est, pronounced as a separate 

" Writers generally have recourse to this mode of expression, that they may avoid 
harsh terminations.'''' — Irving' s El. Eng. Composition, p. 12. But if writers of good 
authority, such as Pope, Swift, and Pollok, have sometimes had recourse to this 
method of simplifying the verb even in the solemn style, the elision may, with ten- 
fold sti-onger reason, be admitted in familiar writing or discourse, on the authority of 
general custom among those who choose to employ the pronoun thou in conversation. 

Some of the Friends ^perhaps from an idea that it is less formal) misemploy thee 
for thou, and often join it to the third person of the verb in stead of the second. Such 
expressions as, thee does, thee is, thee has, thee thinks, &c, are double solecisms: they 
set alt grammar at defiance. Many persons who are not ignorant of grammar, and 
who employ the pronoun aright, sometimes improperly sacrifice concord to a slight 
improvement in sound, and give to the verb the ending of the third person, for that 
of the second. Three instances of this occur in the examples quoted in the preceding 
paragraph. See also the following, and many more, in the works of the poet Burns ; 
who says of himself, "Though it cost the schoolmaster some thrashings, I made an ex- 
cellent English scholar; and, by the time I was ten or eleven years of age, I was a 
critic in substantives, verbs, and particles :" — " Bnt when thou pours ;" — "There thou 
shines chief;' — "Thou clears the head," — "Thou strings the nerves;" — "Thou 
brightens black despair ;" — " Thou comes;" — " Thou travels far ;" — " Thou paints ;" 
" Unseen thou lurks , " — " O thou pale orb that silent shines.' 1 '' This mode of simplify- 
ing the verb confounds the persons, and as it has little advantage in sound, over the 
regular contracted form of the second person, it ought to be avoided. It is too fre- 
quently used by the poets. 

* The second person singular may be contracted, whenever the verb ends in a 
Bound which will unite with that of st. The poets generally employ the contracted 
forms, but they seem not to have adopted a uniform and consistent method of writing 
them. Some insert the apostrophe, and, after a single vowel, double the final conson- 
ant before st ; as, hold'st, bidd'st, said'st, ledoVst, may'st, might' st, &c. : others add 
st only, and form permanent contractions; as, holdst, bidst, saidst, ledst, mayst, 
mightst, <fcc. Some retain the vowel in the termination of certain words, and sup- 
press a preceding one; &s, quick 'nest, happ ''nest, scatt 'rest, slurnVrest, shrniVredst : 
others contract the termination of such words, and insert the apostrophe; as, quid:* 
en'sl, happen'st, scatter'st, slumber' st, slumber' dst. The nature of our language, the 
accent and pronunciation of it, incline us to contract even all our regular verbs; so as 
to avoid, if possible, an increase of syllables in the inflection of them. Accordingly, 
several terminations which formerly constituted distinct syllables, have been either 
wholly dropped, or blended with tho final syllables of the verbs to which they are 
added. Thus the plural teimination ewhas become entirely obsolete ; th or eth is no 
longer in common use; ed is contracted in pronunciation ; the ancient ys or is, of the 
third person singular, is changed to s or es, and is usually added without increase of 
syllables: and st or est has, in part, adopted Ue analogy, So that the proper mode 
of forming these contractions of the second person singular, seems to be, to adds£ 
only, and to insert the apostrophe, when a vowel is suppressed from the verb to which 
this termination is added; as, thinlcst, sayst, bidst, lov'st, lovdsi, slumberst, slum-; 
ber'dst. 

+ Some grammarians say, that, whenever the preterit is like the present, it should 
take edst for the second person singular. This rule gives us such words as cast*edst, 
cost-edst, bid-dedst, burst-edst, cui-tedst, hit-tedst, let-tedst, put-tedst, hurt-edst, rid~ 
dedst, shed-dedst, &c. The few examples which may be adduced from ancient writ- 
ings, in suppor of this rule, are undoubtedly formed in the usual "manner from regular 
preterits now obsolete, and if this were not the case, no person of taste could think 
of employing derivatives so uncouth. Dr. Johnson has justly remarked, that " the 
chief defect of our language is ruggedness and asperity." And this defect is peculiarly 
obvious, when even the regular termination of the second person singular is added to 
our preterits. Accordingly we find numerous instances among the poets, both ancient 
and modern, in which that termination is omitted, — [See Ferry's JZeliques of Ancient 
Poetry everywhere. - - 



74 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 

syllable. But as the termination ed, in solemn discourse, constitutes a syl- 
lable, the regular preterits form the second person singular, by adding st, 
without further increase of syllables ; as, loved, lovedst— not lavedest. Dost 
and hast, and the irregular preterits wast, didst, and Jiadst, are permanently 
contracted. The auxiliaries sliall and will, change the final I to t. To the 
auxiliaries may, can, might, could, would, and should, the termination est was 
formerly added ; but they are now generally written with st only, and pro- 
nounced as monosyllables, even in solemn discourse. 

Obs. 2. — The third person singular was anciently formed by adding th t<* 
verbs ending in e, and eth to all others. This method of forming the third 
person singular, almost always adds a syllable to the verb. It is now con- 
fined to the solemn style, and is little used. Doth, hath, and saith, are con- 
tractions of verbs thus formed. 

Obs. 3.— When the second person singular is employed in familiar dis- 
course, it is usually formed in a manner strictly analogous to that which is 
now adopted in the third person singular. When the verb ends in a sound 
which will unite with that of st or s, the second person singular is formed 
by adding st only, and the third, by adding s only ; and the number of syl- 
lables is not increased : as, I read, thou readst, he reads ; I know, thou knowst, 
he knows ; I take, thou takest, he takes. For when the verb ends in mute e, 
no termination renders this e vocal in the familiar style, if a synseresis can 
take place. 

Obs. 4. — But when the verb ends in a sound which will not unite with that 
of st or s, st and s are added to final e, and est and es to other terminations ; 
and the verb acquires an additional syllable : as, I trace, thou tracest, ho 
traces ; I pass, thou passest, he passes • I fix, \h.0Vi jixest, ho, fixes. But verbs 
ending in o or y preceded by a consonant, do not exactly follow this rule : in 
these, y is changed into i; and to both o and i, est and es are added without 
increase of syllables : as, I go, thou goest, he goes ; I undo, thou undoest,* ho 
undoes ; Ifiy, thou fliest, he files; I pity, thou pytiest, he pities. 

Obs. 5. — The formation of the third person singular of verbs, is precisely 
the same as that of the plural number of nouns. 

Obs. 6. — The auxiliaries do, dost, does, [pronounced doo, dust, duz,} — am, 
art, is, — have, hast, has, — being also in frequent use as principal verbs of th© 
present tense, retain their peculiar form when joined to other verbs. The 
other auxiliaries are not varied, except in the solemn style. 

Obs. 7. — The only regular terminations that are added to \ 7 erbs, are ing, d 
or ed, st or est, s or es, th or eth. Ing, and th or eth, always add a syllable to 
the verb : except in doth, hath, saith. The rest, whenever their sound will 
unite with that of the final syllable of the verb, are added without increasing 
the number of syllables ; otherwise, they are separately pronounced. In 
solemn discourse, however, ed and est are, by most speakers, uttered dis- 
tinctly in all cases , except sometimes, when a vowel precedes. 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement 
of its moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles, j 

Obs.— The moods and tenses are formed partly by inflections, or changes 
made m the verb itself, and partly by the combination of the verb or its par- 
ticiple, with a few short verbs called auxiliaries, or helping verbs. 

There are four Principal Parts in the conjugation 
of every simple and complete verb ; namely, the Present, 
the Preterit, the Imperfect Participle, and the Perfect Par- 

* The second person singular of the simple verb Jo, is now usually written dost, 
and read dust; being contracted in orthography, as well as pronunciation. And per- 
haps the compounds may follow ; as, Thou undost, outdost, misdost, overdost, &c. 
But exceptions to exceptions are puzzling, even when they conform to the general 
rule. ~ l c 



CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.—CONJUGATIOK. 75 

ticiple. A verb which wants any of these parts is called 
defective: such are most of the auxiliaries. 

Obs. — The present is radically the same in all the moods, and is the part 
from which all the rest are formed. The present infinitive is the root, or 

idr 



,„, of the verb. The preterit and the perfect participle are regu- 
larly formed by adding d or ed, and the imperfect participle by adding ing, 
to the present. 

An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the 
principal parts of an other verb, to express some particu- 
lar mode and time of the being, action, or passion. The 
auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, and must, 
with their variations. 

Obs. 1. — Do, be, and have, being also principal verbs, are complete : but 
the participles of do and have, are not used as auxiliaries ; unless having, 
which forms the compound participle, may be considered as such. The 
other auxiliaries have no participles. 

Obs. 2. — English verbs are principally conjugated by means of auxiliaries ; 
the only tenses which can be formed by the simple verb, being the present 
and the imperfect ; as, I love, I loved. And even here an auxiliary is usually 
preferred in questions and negations ; as, Bo you lorn f You do not love. 
All the other tenses, even in their simplest form, are compounds. 

Obs. 3.— The form of conjugating the active verb is often called the Active 
Voice; and that of the passive verb, the Passive Voice. These terms are 
borrowed from the Latin and Greeh grammars, and are of little or no use in 
English. 

Obs. 4. — English verbs having few inflections, it is convenient to insert in 
the conjugations the preposition to, to mark the infinitive ; pronouns, to dis- 
tinguish the persons and numbers ; the conjunction if, to denote the sub- 
junctive ; and the adverb not, to show the form of negation. With these 
additions, a verb may be conjugated in four ways : 

1. Affirmatively; as, I write, I do write, or I am writing. 

2. Negatively; as, I write not, I do not write, or, I am not writing. 

3. Interrogatively; as, Write I ? Do I write ? or, Am I writing ? 

4. Interrogatively > and negatively; as, Write I not? Do I not write? or, Am 

I not writing t 



The simplest form of an English conjugation, is that 
which makes the present and imperfect tenses without 
auxiliaries ; but, even in these, auxiliaries are required 
for the potential mood, and are often preferred for the 
indicative. . 

FIRST EXAMPLE. 

The regular active verb LOVE, conjugated affirmatively. 
Principal Parts. 
Present. . Preterit. Imper. Participle. Perfect ParticipU. 
Love. Loved. Loving. Loved. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

The infinitive mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the. being, 



76 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR [FART1L 

action, or passion, in an unlimited manner, and without person or xmmbeiv 
It is used only in the present and perfect tenses. 

Present Tense. 

This^ tense is the root, or radical verb ; and is usually preceded by th« 
preposition to, which shows its relation to some other word : thus,— 

To love. 

Perfect Tense. 
This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the perfect participle, and is usu- 
ally preceded by the preposition to : thus, — 

To have loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

The indicative mood is that form of the verb, which simply indicates or 
declares a thing, or asks a question. It is used in all the tenses. 

Present Tense. 

The present indicative, in its simple form, is essentially the same as tho 
present infinitive, or radical verb ; except that the verb be has am in the in- 
dicative. 

1. The simple form of the present tense is varied thus: — 

Singular. . Plural. 

1st per. I love, 1st per. We love, 

2d per. Thou lovest, 2d per. You love, 

■3d per. He loves ; 3d per. They love. 

2. This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary 
do to the verb ; thus, — 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I do love, 1. We do love, 

2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 

3. He does love ; 3. They do love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

This tense, in its simple form, is the preterit ; which, in all regular verbs, 
adds d or ed to the present, but in others is formed variously. 

1 . The simple form of the imperfect tense is varied thus :— 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved; 3. They loved. 

2. This tense may also be formed by prefixing the auxiliary 
did to the present : thus,^. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I did love, 1. We did love, 

2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love, 

3. He did love ; 3. They did lov«. 



CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION, 77 

Obs. — In a familiar question or negation, the auxiliary form is preferabli 
to the simple. .But in the solemn or the poetic style, the simple form is 
more dignified and graceful: as, " Understandest thou what thou readest V 
— "Of whom speaketh the prophet this?" — Acts, viii, 30, 34. "Say, heard 
ye nought of lowland war V— Scott: L. of L,, C. v, \ 5. 

Perfect Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary have to the perfect participle : thus,— 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary had to the perfect participle : thus,— 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved ; 3. They had loved. 

First-future Tense. 
This tense prefixes the auxiliary shall or will to the present ; thus,— 

1. Simply to express a future action or event : — 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 

2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 

3. He will love; 3. They will love. 

2. To express a promise, volition, command, or threat :— 



Singular. 


Plural. 


1. I will love, 


1. We will love, 


2. Thou shalt love, 


2. You shall love, 


3. He shall love ; 


3. They shall love. 



Obs. — In interrogative sentences, the meaning of these auxiliaries is re- 
versed. When preceded by a conjunction implying condition or uncertainty, 
their import is somewhat varied. 

Second-future Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries shall have or will have to the perfect par- 
ticiple: thus, — 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 



2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved 

3. He will fyave loved ; 3. They will have loved 



Obs.— The auxiliary shall may also be used in the second and third persons 
of this tense, when preceded by a conjunction expressing condition or con- 
tingency; as, "If he shall have finished his work when I return." And 
Serhaps will may here be used in the first person to express a promise or a 
©termination, though such usage, I think, very seldom occurs. 

1* 



78 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAET II 

- 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

The potential mood is that form of the verb, which expresses the power, 
liberty, possibility, or necessity, of the being, action, or passion. It is used 
in the first four tenses ; but the potential imperfect is properly an aorist, and 
not necessarily a past tense. No definite time is usually implied in it. 

Present Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary may, can, or must, to the radical verb : 
thus,— 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may love, 1. We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love ; 3. They may love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary might, could, would, or should, to the rad- 
ical verb; thus, — 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 

3. He might love ; 3. They might love. 

Perfect Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, may have, can have, or must have, to the 
peneet participle : thus, — 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
This tense prefixes the auxiliaries, might have, could have, would have, or 
should have, to the perfect participle : thus, — 

Singular. Plural. 

\. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

The subjunotive mood is that form of the verb, which represents the being, 
fiction, or passion, as conditional, doubtful, or contingent. This mood is 
generally preceded by a conjunction; as, if, that, though, lest, unless, &c. It 
does not vary its termination, in the different persons. It is used in the 
present, and sometimes in the imperfect tense ; rarely in any other. As this 
mood can be used only in a dependent clause, the time implied in its tensea 
is always relative, and generally indefinite. 

Present Tense. 

This tense is generally used to express some condition on which a future 
action or eveit is affirmed. It is therefore considered by some grammarians, 
as an elliptic*! 4broi of the future. 



CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION. 79 



Singular. 


Plural. 


1. If I love, 


1. If we love, 


2. If thou love, 


2. If you love, 


3. If he love; 


3. If they love. 



Obs. — In this tense the auxiliary do is sometimes employed ; as, " If thotr 
do prosper my way." — Gen., xxiv, 42. " If he do not utter it." — Lev., v, 1. 
Thus uninflected do proves the tense to be present and the mood subjunctive ; 
for the word will come under no other mood or tense. 

Imperfect Tense. 

This tense, as well as the imperfect of the potential mood, with which it 
is frequently connected, is properly an aorist, or indefinite tense ; and it may 
refer to time past, present, or future : as, " If therefore perfection were by 
the Levitical priesthood, what further need was there," &c. — Seb., vii, 11. 
" If the whole body were an eye, where were the hearing?" — 1 Cor., xii, 17. 
" If it were possible, they shall deceive the very elect." — Matt., xxiv, 24. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 

2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 

3. If he loved; 3. If they loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

The imperative mood is that form of the verb, which is used in command- 
ing, exhorting, entreating, or permitting. It is commonly used only in the 
second person of the present tense. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 2. Love 
Plural. 2. Love 



thou,] or Do thou love ; 

ye or you,] or Do you love. 

Obs. — In the Greek language, which has three numbers, the imperative 
mood is used in the second and third persons of them all ; and has also sev- 
eral different tenses, some of which cannot be clearly rendered in English. 
In Latin, this mood has a distinct form for the third person both singular and 
plural. In Italian, Spanish, and French, the first person plural is also given 
it. Imitations of some of these forms are occasionally employed in English, 
particularly by the poets. Such imitations must be referred to this mood, 
unless by ellipsis and transposition we make them out to be something else. 
The following are examples : "Blessed be he that blesseth thee." — Gen., xxvii, 
29. " Thy kingdom come." — Matt., vi, 10. 

"Fall he that must, beneath his rival's arms, 
And live the rest, secure of future harms." — Pope. 

" My soul, turn from them — turn we to survey," &c— Goldsmith. 

PARTICIPLES. 
1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. 

Loving. LQved. Having loved. 

SYNOPSIS OF THE FIRST EXAMPLE. 
First Person Singular, 
Ind. I love, I loved, I have loved, I had loved, I shall love, 
I shall have loved. Pot. I may love, I might love, I may have 
loved, I might have loved. Subj. If I love, If I loved. 



80 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 

Second Person Singular. 
Ind. Thou lovest, Thou lovedst, Thou hast loved, Thou 
hadst loved, Thou wilt love, Thou wilt have loved. Pot. 
Thou mayst love, Thou mightst love, Thou mayst have loved, 
Thou mightst have loved. Subj. If thou love. If thou loved. 
Imp. Love [thou,] or Do thou love. 

Third Person Singular. 
Ind. He loves, He loved, He has loved, He had loved, He 
will love, He will have loved. Pot. He may love, He might 
love, He may have loved, He might have loved. Subj. If he 
love, If he loved. 

First Person Plural. 
Ind. We love, We loved, We have loved, We had loved, 
We shall love, We shall have loved. Pot. We may love, 
We might love, We may have loved, We might have loved. 
Subj. If we love, If we loved. 

Second Person Plural. 

Ind. You love, You loved, You have loved, You had loved, 
You will love, You will have loved. Pot. You may love, 
You might love, You may have loved, You might have loved. 
Subj. If you love, If you loved. Imp. Love [ye or you,] or 
Do you love. 

Third Person Plural. 

Ind. They love, They loved, They have loved, They had 
loved, They will love, They will have loved. Pot. They may 
love, They might love, They may have loved, They might have 
loved. Subj. If they love, If they loved. 

Obs. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is usu- 
ally formed thus : Ind. Thou lov'st, Thou loved, Thou hast loved, Thou had 
loved, Thou will love, Thou will have loved. Pot. Thou may love, Thou 
might love, Thou may have loved, Thou might have loved. Subj. If thou 
love, If thou loved. Imp. Love [thou,] or Do thou love. ' 

SECOND EXAMPLE. 

The irregular active verb SFF, conjugated affirmatively. 
Principal Parts. 
Present. Preterit Imp. Participle. Per/. Participle, 
See. Saw Seeing. Seen. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. . 

Present Tense, 

To see. 



CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION. 81 

Perfect Tense. 
To have seen. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. PluraL 

1. I see, 1. We see, 

2. Thou seest, 2. You see, 

3. He sees ; 3. They see. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I saw, 1. We saw, 

2. Thou sawest, 2. You saw, 

3. He saw; 3. They saw. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have seen, 1. We have seea, 

2. Thou hast seen, 2. You have seen, 

3. He has seen ; 3. They have seen. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had seen, 1. We had seen, 

2. Thou hadst seen, 2. You had seen, 

3. He had seen ; 3. They had seen. 

First-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall see, 1. We shall see, 

2. Thou wilt see, 2. You will see, 

3. He will see; 3. They will see. 

Second-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen, 

2. Thou wilt have seen, 2. You will have seen, 

3. He will have seen ; 3. They will have seea. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may see, 1. We may see, 

2. Thou mayst see, 2. You may see, 
He may see ; 3. They may see. 

4* 



82 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might see, 1. We might see, 

2. Thou mightst see, 2. You might see, 

3. He might see ; 3. They might see. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have seen, 1, We may have seen, 

2. Thou mayst have seen, 2. You may have seen, 

3. He may have seen ; 3. They may have seen. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have seen, 1. We might have seen, 

2. Thou mightst have seen, 2. You might have seen, 

3. He might have seen ; 3. They might have seen. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Pural. 

1. If I see, 1. If we see, 

2. If thou see, 2. If you see, 

3. If he see ; 3. If they see. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I saw, 1. If we saw, 

2. If thou saw, 2. If you saw, 

3. If he saw ; 3. If they saw. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 



Singular. 2. See 
Plural. 2. See 



thou,] or Do thou see ; 

ye or you,] or Do you see. 



PARTICIPLES. 

% The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. 

Seeing. Seen. Having seen. 

Obs.— In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is 
usually formed thus : Ind. Thou seest, Thou saw, Thou hast seen, Thou had 
seen, Thou will see, Thou will have seen. Pot. Thou may see, Thou might 
see, Thou may have seen, Thou might har« M«n. Sub/. K thou sae, If thou 
8aw. Imp. See [thou,] *r Do thou ae£. 



CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION. 83 

THIRD EXAMPLE. 

The irregular neuter verb BE, conjugated affirmatively. 

Principal Parts. 
Present Preterit. Imp. Participle. Per/. Participle, 
Be. Was. Being. Been„ 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

To be. 
Perfect Tense. 
To have been. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Obs. — Be was formerly used in the indicative present : as, " We le twelve 
brethren." — Gen., xlii, 32. "What le these two olive branches?" — Zech. % 
iv, 12. But this construction is now obsolete. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, 1. We are, 

2. Thou art, 2. You are, 

3. He is; 3. They are. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was, 1. We were, 

2. Thou wast,* 2. You were, 

3. He was ; 3. They were. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 

3. He has been ; 3. They have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been ; 3. They had been. 

* Wert is sometimes used indicatively for wast; as, 
" Vainly uert thou wed."— Byron. 
w Whate'ef thou art or %oerV— Id\ 



84 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PARTIL 





First-future 
Singular. 


Tense. 


Plural. 




1. 

2. 
3. 


I shall be, 
Thou wilt be, 
He will be ; 




1. 
2. 
3. 


We 

You 
They 


shall be, 
will be, 
will be. 



Second-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 
$. He will have been ; 3. They wiU have been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be, 1. We may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 

3. He may be ; 3. They may be. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 might be, 1. We might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 

3. He might be ; 3. They might be. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been, I. We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be, 1. Jfwe be, 

2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 
9. If he be; 3. If they be. 



CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION. S5 





Imperfect Tense, 






Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


If 1 were, 1 . 


If we were, 


2. 


If thou wert, or were, 2. 


If you were, 


3. 


If he were ; 3. 


If they were. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. 2. Be [thou,] or Do thou be ; 

Plural. 2. Be [ye or you,] or Do you be. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. 

Being. Been. Having been. 

Obs. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb is usu- 
ally formed thus : Ind. Thou art, Thou was, Thou hast been, Thou had 
been, Thou will be, Thou will have been. Pot. Thou may be, Thou might 
be, Thou may have been, Thou might have been. Subj. If thou be, If thou 
were. Imp. Be [thou,] or Do thou be. 

II. COMPOUND FORM, ACTIVE OR NEUTER. 

Active and neuter verbs may also be conjugated, by 
adding the Imperfect Participle to the auxiliary verb be, 
through all its changes ; as, I am writing — He is silting. 
This form of the verb denotes a continuance* of the ac^ 
tion or the state of being, and is, on many occasions, 
preferable to the simple form of the verb. 

Obs. — Verbs of this form have sometimes a passive signification ; as, "The 
books are now selling.'''' — Allen's Gram., p. 82. " It requires no motion in 
the organs whilst it is forming '." — Murray's Gram. y p. 8. " While the work 
of the temple was carrying on."— Dr. J. Owen. " The designs of Providence 
are carrying on." — Bp. Butler. "We are permitted to know nothing of 
what is transacting in the regions above us." — Dr. Blair. Expressions of 
this kind are condemned by some critics ; but the usage is unquestionably 
of far better authority, and (according to my apprehension) in far better 
taste, than the more complex phraseology which some late writers adopt in 
its stead; as, "The books are now being sold.' 1 '' 

FOURTH EXAMPLE. 

The irregular active verb READ, conjugated affirmatively in 
the Compound Form. 

Principal Parts of the Simple Verb, 
Present Preterit. Imp. Participle. Perf. Participle. 
Read. Read. Reading. Read. 

* Those verbs -which, in their simple form, imply continuance, do not admit the 
•ompound form ; thus we say, "I respect him ;" hut not, "I am respecting him" 

8 



£6 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 
o be reading. 

Perfect Tense. 
To have been reading. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am reading, 1. We are reading, 

2. Thou art reading, 2. You are reading, 

3. He is reading ; 3. They are reading. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was reading, 1. We were reading, 

2. Thou wast reading, 2. You were reading, 

3. He was reading; 3. They were reading. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been reading, 1. We have been reading, 

2. Thou hast been reading, 2. You have been reading, 

3. He has been reading; 3. They have been reading. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been reading, 1. We had been reading, 

2. Thou hadst been reading, 2. You had been reading, 

3. He had been reading ; 3. They had been reading, 

First-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be reading, 1. We shall be reading, 

2. Thou wilt be reading, 2. You will be reading, 

3. He will be reading ; 3. They will be reading. 

Second-future Tense. 
Singular. 1. I shall have been reading, 

2. Thou wilt have been reading, 

3. He will have been reading ; 
Plural. 1. We shall have been reading, 

2. You will have been reading, 
3 They will have been reading. 



CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION. 



87 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1, I may be reading, 1. "We may be reading, 

% Thou mayst be reading, 2. You may be reading, 

3. He may be reading; 3. They may be reading. 

Imperfect Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be reading, 1. We might be reading, 

2. Thou mightst be reading, 2. You might be reading, 

3. He might be reading; 3. They might be reading, 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. 1. I may have been reading, 

2. Thou mayst have been reading, 

3. He may have been reading ; 
Plural. 1. We may have been reading, 

2. You may have been reading, 

3. They may have been reading. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. 1. I might have been reading, 

2. Thou mightst have been reading, 

3. He might have been reading ; 
Plural. 1. We might have been reading, 

2. You might have been reading, 
8. They might have been reading. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. plural. 

1. If I be reading, 1. If we be reading, 

2. If thou be reading, 2. If you be reading, 

3. If he be reading ; 3. If they be reading. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were reading, 1. If we were reading, 

2. If thou wert reading, 2. If you were reading, 

3. If he were reading ; 8. If they were reading. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. 2. Be [thou] reading, or Do thou be reading ; 

Plwr. 2. Be [ye or you] reading, or £)o you be reading. 



88 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1. The Imperfect 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect 

Being reading. Having been reading. 

Obs. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, is 
usually formed thus : Ind. Thou art reading, Thou was reading, Thou hast 
been reading, Thou had been reading, Thou will be reading, Thou will have 
been reading. Pot. Thou may be reading, Thou might be reading, Thou 
may have been reading, Thou might have been reading. Subj. If thou be 
leading, If thou were reading,, Imp. Be [thou] reading, or Do thou be reading. 

III. FORM OF PASSIVE VERBS. 

Passive verbs, in English, are always of a compound 
form ; being made from active-transitive verbs, bj add- 
ing the Perfect Participle to the auxiliary verb BE, 
through all its changes : thus, from the active-transitive 
verb love, is formed the passive verb be loved, 

Obs. 1. — A few active-intransitive verbs, that merely imply motion, or 
change of condition, may be put into this form, with a neuter signification ; 
making not passive but neuter verbs, which express nothing more than the 
state which results from the change : as, I am come; He is ruen; They are 



fallen. Our ancient writers, after the manner of the French, very frequently 
employed this mode of conjugation in a neuter sense ; but, with a few ex- 
ceptions, present usage is clearly in favour of the auxiliary have in preference 



to be, whenever the verb formed with the perfect participle is not passive ; 
as, They have arrived — not, They are arrived. 

Obs. 2. — Passive verbs maybe distinguished from neuter verbs of the same 
form, by a reference to the agent or instrument ; which frequently is, and 
always may be, expressed after passive verbs ; but which never is, and never 
can be, expressed after neuter verbs : as, " The thief has been caught by the 
officer" — " Pens are made with a knife." 

FIFTH EXAMPLE. 
The regular passive verb BE L VUB, conjugated affirmatively. 

Principal Parts of the Active Verb. 

Present Preterit. Imper. Participle. Perfect Participle, 

Love, Lovdd. Loving. Loved, 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

To be loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

To have been loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 
S. He is loved j 3. They are loved. 



CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— CONJUGATION, 89 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 

3. He was loved ; 3. They were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular Plural. 

1. 1 have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved ; 3. They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved ; 3. They had been loved. 

First-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 

2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved, 

3. He will be loved ; 3. They will be loved, 

Second-future Tense. 

Singular. 1. I shall have been loved, 

2. Thou wilt have been loved, 

3. He will have been loved ; 

Plural. 1. We shall have been loved, 

2. You will have been loved, 

3. They will have been loved, 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 

3. He may be loved ; 3. They may be loved 





Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 

2. 

3. 


I might be loved, 1. 
Thou mightst be loved, 2. 
He might be loved ; 3. 


We might be loved, 
You might be loved, 
They might be loved. 



8* 



90 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART It 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. 1. I may have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst have been loved, 

3. He may have been loved ; 

Plural. 1. We may have been loved, 

2. You may have been loved, 

3. They may have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. 1. I might have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst have been loved, 

3. He might have been loved ; 

Plural. 1. We might have been loved, 

2. You might have been loved, 

3. They might have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I beloved, 1. If we beloved, 

2. If thou be loved, 2. If you beloved, 

3. If he beloved; 3. If they be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were loved, 1. If we were loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, 2. If you were loved, 

3. If he were loved; 3. If they were loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. 2. Be [thou] loved, or Do thou be loved ; 

Plural. 2. Be [ye or you] loved, or Do you be loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1. The Imperfect. 2. The Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. 

Being loved. Loved. Having been loved. 

Obs. — In the familiar style, the second person singular of this verb, ig 
usually formed thus : Ind. Thou art loved. Thou was loved, Thou hast been 
lovad, Thou had been loved, Thou will beloved, Thou will have been loved. 
Pot. Thou may be loved, Thou might be loved, Thou may have been loved, 
Thou might have been loved. Sitbj. If thou be loved, If thou were loved. 
Imp. Bo [thou] loved, or Do thou, be loved. 

IV. FORM OF NEGATION. 

A verb is conjugated negatively, by placing the adverb 



CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY.— VERBS.— IRREGULARS. 91 

not after it, or after the first auxiliary ; but the infinitive 
and participles take the negative first : as, 

Inf. Not to love, Not to have loved. Ind. I love not, or I 
do not love, I loved not, or I did not love, I have not loved, 
] had not loved, 1 shall not love, I shall not have loved. Pot. 
1 may, can,* or must not love ; I might, could, would, or should 
not love, 1 may, can, or must not have loved ; I might, could, 
would, or should not have loved. Subj. Jf I love not. If I loved 
not. Part. Not loving, Not loved, Not having loved. 

V. FORM OF QUESTION. 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively, in the indicative 
and potential moods, by placing the nominative after it, 
or after the first auxiliary : as, 

Ind. Do 1 love? Did I love? Have I loved? Had I loved? 
Shall 1 love? Shall I have loved? Pot. May, can, or must I 
love ? Might, could, would, or should I love ? May, can, or 
must I have loved ? Might, could, would, or should I have 
loved ? 

VI. FORM OF QUESTION WITH NEGATION. 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively, in the 
indicative and potential moods, by placing the nomina- 
tive and the adverb not after the verb, or after the first 
auxiliary: as, 

Ind. Do 1 not love ? Did I not love ? Have I not loved ? 
Had I not loved 1 Shall I not love ? Shall I not have loved ? 
Pot. May, can, or must I not love? Might, could, would, or 
should I not love? May, can, or must I not have loved? Might, 
could, would, or should I not have loved ? 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 

An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the pre- 
terit and perfect participle by assuming d or ed; as, see, 
saw, seeing, seen. 

Obs. 1. — When the verb ends in a sharp consonant, t is sometimes im- 
properly substituted for ed, making the preterit and the perfect participte 
irregular in spelling, when they are not so in sound: as, distrest for distressed, 
tost for tossed, mixt for mixed, cracht for cracked. 

Obs. 2.— When the verb ends with a smooth consonant, the substitution 
of I for ed produces an irregularity in sound, as well as in writing. In some 
— ^> ~ 

* When power is denied, can and not are united to prevent ambiguity; as, " I can- 
«-o?go. r But when the power is affirmed, and something else is denied, the words 
are written separately ; as, 4i The Christian apologist can not merely expose the utter 
baseness of the infidel assertion, but he has positive ground for erecting an opposite 
and confronting assertion in its place."— Dr. Chalmers. 



92 



INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 



such irregularities, the poets are indulged for the sake of rhyme ; but the 
best speakers and writers of prose prefer the regular form wherever good use 
has sanctioned it : thus, learned is better than learnt ; burned, than burnt ; 
penned, than pent ; absorbed, than absorpt ; spelled, than spelt ; smelled, than 
smelt ; though both forms are allowable. 

Obs. 3. — Several of the irregular verbs are variously used by the best au- 
thors ; and many preterits and participles which were formerly in good use, 
are now obsolete, or becoming so. 

Obs. 4.— The simple irregular verbs are about 130 in number, and are 
nearly all monosyllables. They are derived from the Saxon, in which lan- 
guage they are also, for the most part, irregular. 

Obs. 5. — The following alphabetical list exhibits the simple irregular verbs, 
as they are now generally used. In this list, and also in that of the redun- 
dant verbs, those preterits and participles which are supposed to be prefer- 
able, and best supported by authorities, are placed first. Nearly all com- 
pounds that follow the form of their simple verbs, or derivatives that follow 
their primitives, are purposely omitted from both tables. Welcome and be- 
have, unlike come and have, are always regular, and therefore belong not to 
either list. Some words which are obsolete, have also been omitted, that 
the learner might not mistake them for words in present use. Some of those 
which are placed last, are now little used. 



LIST OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present. 


Preterit. 


Imp . Particip le. 


Perfect Participle. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abiding, 


abode. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arising, 


arisen. 


Be, 


was, 


being, 


been. 


Bear, 


bore or bare, 


bearing, 


borne or born.* 


Beat, 


beat, 


beating, 


beaten or beat. 


Begin, 


began, 


beginning, 


begun. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beholding, 


beheld. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


beseeching, 


besought. 


Beset, 


beset, 


besetting, 


beset. 


Bid, 


bid or bade, 


bidding, 


bidden or bid. 


Bide, 


bode, 


biding, 


bode. 


Bind, 


bound, 


binding, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


biting, 


bitten or bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bleeding, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blowing, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


breaking, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


breeding, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


bringing, 


brought. 


Burst, 


burst, 


bursting, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


buying, 


bought. 


Cast, 


east, 


casting, 


cast. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chiding, 


chidden or chid. 


Choose, 


chose, 


choosing, 


chosen. 


Cleave, f 


cleft or clove, 


cleaving, 


cleft or cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clinging, 


clung. 



* Borne signifies carried ; born signifies brought forth. 

t Cleave, to split, is irregular, as above ; cleave, to stick, is regular, but clave waa 
formerly used in the preterit, for cleaved. 



CHAP. VI. 


ETYMOLOGT.- 


-VEEBS. — ike; 


EGULAES. yd 


Present. 


Preterit. 


Imp. ParticipU 


',. Perfect Participle. 


Creep, 


crept, 


creeping, 


crept. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cutting, 


cut. 


Come, 


came, 


coming, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


costing, 


cost. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealing, 


dealt. 


Do, 


did, 


doing, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawing, 


drawn. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drinking, 


drunk or drank. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driving, 


driven. 


Eat, 


ate or 6at, 


eating, 


eaten or 6at. 


Fall, 


fell, 


falling, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


feeding, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


feeling, 


felt. 


Fight. 


fought, 


fighting, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


finding, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fleeing, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flinging, 


flung. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


freezing, 


frozen. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flying, 


flown. 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


forbearing, 


forborne. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaking, 


forsaken. 


Get, 


got, 


getting, 


got or gotten. 


Give, 


gave, 


giving, 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


going, 


gone. 


Grind, 


ground, 


grinding, 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 


growing, 


grown. 


Have, 


had, 


having, 


had. 


Hear, 


heard, 


hearing, 


heard. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hiding, 


hidden or hid. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hitting, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


holding, 


held or holden.* 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurting, 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 


keeping, 


kept. 


Know, 


knew, 


knowing, 


known. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laying, 


laid. 


Lead, 


led, 


leading, 


led. 


Leave, 


left, 


leaving, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lending, 


lent. 


Let, 


let, 


letting, 


let. 


Lie, (to rest,) lay, 


lying, 


lain. 


Lose, 


lost, 


losing, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


making, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meaning, 


meant. 


Meet, 


met, 


meeting, 


met. 



* " ffblden is not in general use ; and is chiefly employed by attorneys." — Crombie, p. 
19(5. Wells marks this word as "obsolescent." — School Giwn., p. 103. L. Murray 
rejected it, but Lowth gave it alone, as a participle, and held only as a preterit. 



94 



INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 



Present. 


Preterit. 




Imp. Participl 


?. Perfect Participle. 


Outdo, 


outdid, 




outdoing, 


outdone. 


Pay, 


paid, 




paying, 


paid. 


Put, 


put, 




putting, 


put. 


Read, 


rSad, 




reading, 


r8ad. 


Rend, 


rent, 




rending, 


rent.* 


Rid, 


rid, 




ridding, 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode, 




riding, 


ridden or rode. 


Ring, 


rang or 


rung, 


ringing, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 




rising, 


risen. 


Run, 


ran or run, 


running, 


run. 


Say, 


said, 




saying, 


said. 


See, 


saw, 




seeing, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 




seeking, 


sought. 


Sell, 


sold, 




selling, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 




sending, 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 




setting, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 




shaking, 


shaken. 


Shed, 


shed, 




shedding, 


shed. 


Shoe, 


shod, 




shoeing, 


shod, f 


Shoot, 


shot, 




shooting, 


shot. 


Shut, 


shut, 




shutting, 


shut. 


Shred, 


shred, 




shredding, 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrunk 


or shrank, 


shrinking, 


shrunk or shrunken. 


Sing, 


sung or 


sang, 


singing, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk or 


sank, 


sinking, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 




sitting, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 




slaying, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 




sleeping, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 




sliding, 


slid or slidden. 


Sling, 


slung, 




slinging, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 




slinking, 


slunk. 


Smite, 


smote, 




smiting, 


smitten or smit. 


Speak, 


spoke, 




speaking, 


spoken. 


Spend, 


spent, 




spending, 


spent. 


Spin, 


spun, 




spinning, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit or spat, 


spitting, 


spit or spitten. 


Spread, 


spread, 




spreading, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung 


or sprang, 


springing, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 




standing, 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 




stealing, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 




sticking, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 




stinging, 


stung. 


Stride, 


strode, 




striding, 


stridden or strid. \ 



\ * Perhaps there is authority sufficient to place the verb rend among those which are 
redundant. See, in the Grammar of English Grammars, four examples of the regular 
form, "rendert." 



t " Shoe, sJwed or shod, shoeing, shoed or shod 
and Fowled True English Gram., p. 46. 



Old Gram., &y W. Ward, p. 64 ; 
X The verb stride, and its derivative bestride, each of which is used in two irregulai 



CHAP. VI.] ETYMjOLOGY. VERBS. EEDUNDANTS. 



95 



Present. 


Preterit. 


Imp. Participle 


. Perfect Participle. 


Strike, 


struck, 


striking, 


struck or stricken. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striving, 


striven. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


sweeping, 


swept. 


Swear, 


swore, 


swearing, 


sworn. 


Swim, 


swum or swam, 


swimming, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swinging, 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taking, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


teaching, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


tearing, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


telling, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thinking, 


thought. 


Throw, 


threw, 


throwing, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrusting, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


treading, 


trodden or trod. 


Wear, 


wore, 


wearing, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


weaving, 


woven. 


Weep, 


wept, 


weeping, 


wept. 


Win, 


won, 


winning, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


winding, 


wound. 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wringing, 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


writing, 


written. * 



KEDUNDAXT VERBS. 



A redundant verb is a verb that forms the preterit or 
the perfect participle in two or more ways, and so as to 
be both regular and irregular ; as, thrive, thrived or 
throve, thriving, thrived or thriven. Of this class of 
verbs, there are about sixty-live, besides sundry deriva- 
tives and compounds. 

Obs. 1. — Those irregular verbs which have more than one form for the 
preterit or for the perfect participle, are in some sense redundant ; but, as 
there is no occasion to make a distinct class of such as have double forms 
that are never regular, these redundancies are either included in the preced- 
ing list of the simple irregular verbs, or omitted as being improper to be 
now recognized for good English. A few old preterits or participles may 
perhaps be accounted good English in the solemn style, which are not so in 
the familiar : as, " And none spake a word unto him. " — Job, ii, 13. " When 
I brake the five loaves." — Mark, viii, 19. "Serve me till I have eaten and 
drunken.''' 1 — Luke, xvii, 8. "It was not possible that he should be holden 
" Thou casteclst them down into destruction." — Psalms, 



forms, show also a tendency to become redundant. "He will find the political hobby 
which he has bestrided no child's nag." — The Vanguard, a Newspaper. 

" Through the pressed nostril spectacle-fresitn'ii.'" — Cowper. 

"A lank haired hunter strided." — Whittier's Sabbath Scene. 
* " Writ and wrote were formerly often used as participles, and writ also as a pre- 
terit, but they are now generally discontinued by good writers." — Worcester's Diet. » 



96 



INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 



Ixxiii, 18. " Behold I was shapen in iniquity." — 76., li, 5. " A meat-offer- 
ing baleen in the oven." — Leviticus, ii, 4. 

" With easted slough, and fresh celerity." — Shakspeare. 
"Thy dreadful vow, loaden with death." — Addison. 

Obs. 2. — The list which is given below, (one that originated with G-. B., 
and was prepared with great care, ) exhibits the redundant verbs as they are 
now generally used, or as they may be used without grammatical impro- 
priety. If the reader would see authorities for the forms admitted, he may 
find a great number cited in Brown's largest Grammar. No words are in- 
serted in the following table, but such as some modern authors countenance. 
A word is not necessarily ungrammatical by reason of having a rival form 
that is more common ; nor is every thing to be repudiated which some few 
grammarians condemn. 

Obs. 3. — This school grammar, as now revised by the author in 1854, ex- 
hibits the several classes of verbs in the same manner as does the Grammar 
of English Grammars, which was first published in 1851. All former lists 
of our irregular and redundant verbs are, in many respects, defective and 
erroneous ; nor is it claimed for those which are here presented, that they 
are absolutely perfect. I trust, however, they are much nearer to perfec- 
tion, than are any earlier ones. Among the many individuals who have 
published schemes of these verbs, none have been more respected and fol- 
lowed than Lowth, Murray, and Crombie ; yet are these authors' lists sev- 
erally faulty in respect to as many as sixty or seventy of the words in 
question, though the whole number but little exceeds two hundred, and is 
commonly reckoned less than one hundred and eighty. 

Obs. 4. — The grammatical points to be settled or taught by these tables, 
are very many. They are more numerous than all the preterits and perfect 
participles which the lists exhibit; because the mere absence therefrom of 
auy form of preterit or perfect participle implies its condemnation, and 
the omission from both, of any entire verb, suggests that it is always regu- 
lar. 



LIST OF THE REDUNDANT VERBS.* 



Present. 

Awake, 

Belay, 

Bend, 

Bereave, 

Bet, 

Betide, 

Blend, 

Bless, 

Build, 

Burn, 

Catcb, 

Clothe, 

Crow, 

Curse, 

Dare, 

Dig, 
Dream, 



Preterit 



Imp erf. Participle. 



awoke or awaked, 
belaid or belayed, 
bent or bended, 
bereft or bereaved, 
betted or bet, 
betided or betid, 
blended or blent, 
blessed or blest, 
built or builded, 
burned or burnt, 
caught or catched, 
clothed or clad, 
crowed or crew, 
cursed or curst, 
dared or durst, 
dug or digged, 
dreamed or dreamt. 



awaking, 

belaying, 

bending, 

bereaving, 

betting, 

betiding, 

blending, 



building, 

burning, 

catching, 

clothing, 

crowing, 

cursing, 

daring, 

digging, 

dreaming, 



Perfect Participle. 
awoke or awaked, 
belaid or belayed, 
bent or bended, 
bereft or bereaved, 
betted or bet. 
betided or betid, 
blended or blent, 
blessed or blest, 
built or builded. 
burned or burnt, 
caught or catched. 
clothed or clad, 
crowed. 

cursed or curst, 
dared. 

dug or digged, 
dreamed or dreamt. 



* The list inserted by the author contained ninety-seven verbs, of which tioenty-two 
have, in this edition, been placed in the list of simple irregular verbs, and nine omitted 
from both lists as regular. The remaining sixty-six include all that, in a school text- 
book, it seems proper to retain ; for, whatever authority may exist for considering such 
forms as Mowed, freezed, bursted, weeped, etc., as sanctioned by past usage, [See 
Brown's Grammar of Grammars,] they cannot be deemed as grammatically proper at 
ftie present time, when they have become entirely obsolete. — Editor. 



CHAP. VI.] ETYMOLOGY. VERBS. DEFECTIVES. 



97 



Present. 

Dress, 

Dwell, 

Geld, 

Gild, 

Gird, 

Grave, 

Hang, 

Heave, 

Hew, 

Kneel, 

Knit, 

Lade, 

Lean, 

Leap, 

Learn, 

Light, 

Mow, 

Pen, (to coop,) 

Quit, 

Rap, 

Reave, 

Rive, 

Roast, 

Saw, 

Seethe, 

Shape, 

Shave, 

Shear, 

Shine, 

Show, 

Slit, 

Smell, 

Sow, 

Speed, 

Spell, 

Spill, 

Split, 

Spoil, 

Stave, 

Stay, 

String, 

Strow, 

Sweat, 

Swell, 

Thrive, 

Wax, 

Wet, 

Wont, 

Work, 



rreterit 

dressed or drest, 

dwelt or dwelled, 

gelded or gelt, 

gilded or gilt, 

girt or girded, 

graved, 

hanged or hung, 

heaved or hove, 

hewed, 

knelt or kneeled, 

knit or knitted, 

laded, 

leaned, or leant, 

leaped or l^apt, 

learned or learnt, 

lighted or lit, 

mowed, 

penned or pent, 

quitted or quit, 

rapped, 

reft or reaved, 

rived, 

roast or roasted, 

sawed, 

seethed or sod,* 

shaped, 

shaved, 

sheared or shore, 

shone or shined, 

showed, 

slit or slitted, 

smelled or smelt, 

sowed, 

sped or speeded. 

spelled or spelt, 

spilled or spilt, 

split or splitted, 

spoiled or spoilt, 

staved or stove, 

staid or stayed, 

strung, 

strowed, 

sweat or sweated, 

swelled, 

throve or thrived, 

waxed, 

wet or wetted, 

wont, 

worked or wrought, 



Imp erf. Participle. 



dressing, 

dwelling, 

gelding, 

gilding, 

girding, 

graving, 

hanging, 

heaving, 

hewing, 

kneeling, 

knitting, 

lading, 

leaning, 

leaping, 

learning, 

lighting, 

mowing, 

penning, 

quitting, 

rapping, 

reaving, 

riving, 

roasting, 

sawing, 

seething, 

shaping, 

shaving, 

shearing, 

shining, 

showing, 

slitting, 

smelling, 

sowing, 

speeding, 

spelling, 

spilling, 

splitting, 

spoiling, 

staving, 

staying, 

stringing, 

strowing, 

sweating, 

swelling, 

thriving, 

waxing, 

wetting, 

wonting, 

working, 



Perfect Participle. 
dressed or drest. 
dwelt or dwelled, 
gelded or gelt, 
gilded or gilt, 
girt or girded, 
graven or graved, 
hanged or hung, 
heaved or hoven. 
hewed or hewn, 
knelt or kneeled, 
knit or knitted, 
laded or laden, 
leaned or leant, 
leaped or leapt, 
learned or learnt, 
lighted or lit. 
mowed or mown, 
penned or pent, 
quitted or quit, 
rapped or rapt, 
reft or reaved. 
riven or rived, 
roast or roasted, 
sawed or sawn, 
seethed or sodden, 
shaped or shapen. 
shaved or shaven, 
sheared or shorn, 
shone or shined. 
shown or showed, 
slit or slitted. 
smelled or smelt, 
sown or sowed, 
sped or speeded, 
spelled or spelt, 
spilled or spilt, 
split or splitted. 
spoiled or spoilt, 
staved or stove, 
staid or stayed, 
strung or stringed, 
strowed or strown. 
sweat or sweated, 
swelled or swollen, 
thriven or thrived, 
waxed or waxen, 
wet or wetted, 
wont or wonted, 
worked or wrought. 



DEFECTIVE YEKBS. 



A defective verb is a verb that forms no participles, 
and is used in but few of the moods and tenses ; as, be- 
ware, ought, quoth. 

5 



98 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GKAMMAR. [PAKfU. 

Obs.— When any of the principal parts of a verb are wanting, the tenses 
usually derived from those parts are also, of course, wanting. All the auxil- 
iaries, except do, be, and have, are defective ; but, as auxihanes, they become 
parts of other verb!, and do not need the parts Avhich are technically said to 
D e "vxmtmg" The following brief catalogue .contains all out "defective 
verbs, except methinks, with its preterit methought, which is not only detect- 
ive, but impersonal, irregular, and deservedly obsolescent. 

LIST OF THE DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
Present. Preterit. Present. Preterit. 



Beware, 

Can, could. 

May, might. 

Must, must. 

Ought, ought. 



Shall, should. 

"Will, would. 

Quoth, quoth. 

Wis, wist. 



Wit, wot. 

Obs. 1.— Beware is not used in the indicative present. Must is never varied 
i termination. Ought is invariable, except in the solemn style, where we 

-».,« -nr.i7?_ *: „ „o^ nc n rvi-4nmr>n1 VPTh. and aS SUChlS 



in termination. Ought is invariable, except in the solemn styie, wnere w« 
find oughtest. Will is sometimes used as a principal verb, and as such is 
regula7and complete. Quoth is used only in ludicrous language, and is not 
varied. It seems to be properly the third person singular oi the present ; 
for it ends in th, and quod was formerly used as the preterit : as, 
" Yea, so sayst thou, {quod Troylus,) alas !"— Chaucer. 

Obs. 2.— Wis, preterit wist, to know, to think, to suppose, to imagine, ap- 
pears to be now nearly or quite obsolete; but it seems proper to explain it, 
because it is found in the Bible : as, "I wist not, brethren that he was tha 
hi^h priest."— Acts, xxiii, 5. " He himself « wist not that his face shone. 
—Life of Schiller, p. iv. Wit, to know, and wot, knew, are also obsolete 
except in the phrase to wit ; which, being taken abstractly, is equivalent to 
the adverb namely, or to the phrase, that is to say. m 

Obs. 3.— Some verbs from the nature of the subject to which they reier, 
can be used only in the third person singular: as, It rains; it snows; it 
freezes ; it hails ; it lightens; it thunders. These have been cal ed impersonal 
verbs. The neuter pronoun it, which is always used before them, does not 
seem to represent any noun, but, in connexion with the verb, merely to ex- 
press a state of things. 



CHAPTER VII,- OF PARTICIPLES. 

A Participle is a word derived from a verb, partici- 
pating the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or a 
noun ; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed y 
to the verb : thus, from the verb rule, are formed threo 
participles, two simple and one compound ; as, 1. ruling, 
2. ruled, 3. having ruled. 

Obs. 1.— Almost all verbs and participles seem to have their very essence 
in motion, or the privation of motion— -in acting, or ceasing to act. And to all 
motion and rest, time and place are necessary concomitants ; nor are the ideas 
of degree and manner often irrelevant. Hence the use of tenses and ot aa* 



CHAP. VII.] ETYMOLOGY.— PAETICIPLES.— CLASSES. 99 

verbs. For whatsoever comes to pass, must come to pass sometime and some-* 
where ; and, in every event, something must be affected somewhat and some- 
how. Hence it is evident that those grammarians are right, who say, that 
" all participles imply time." But it does not follow that the English par- 
ticiples divide time, like the tenses of a verb, and specify the period of 
action ; on the contrary, it is certain and manifest that they do not. The 
phrase, "men labouring," conveys no other idea than that of labourers at 
work ; it no more suggests the time, than the place, degree, or manner of their 
work. All these circumstances require other words to express them ; as, 
" Men now here awkwardly labouring much to little purpose." 

Obs. 2. — Participles retain the essential meaning of their verbs ; and, like 
verbs, are either active-transitive, active-intransiUve, passive, or neuter, in 
their signification. For this reason, many have classed them with the verbs. 
But their formal meaning is obviously different. They convey no affirma- 
tion, but usually relate to nouns or pronouns, like adjectives, except when 
they are joined with auxiliaries to form the compound tenses ; or when they 
have in part the nature of substantives, like the Latin gerunds. Hence 
some have injudiciously ranked them with the adjectives. We have as- 
signed them a separate place among the parts of speech, because experience 
has shown that it is expedient to do so. 

Obs. 3. — The English participles are all derived from the roots of their 
respective verbs, and do not, like those of some other languages, take their 
names from the tenses. They are reckoned among the principal parts in the 
conjugation of their verbs, and many of the tenses are formed from them. 
In the compound forms of conjugation, they are found alike in all the tenses. 
They do not therefore, of themselves, express any particular time ; but they 
denote the state of the being, action, or passion, in regard to its progress or 
completion. [See remarks on the Participles, in the Port-Royal Latin and 
Greek Grammars.] 

CLASSES. 

English verbs have severally three participles ; which 
have been very variously denominated, perhaps the most 
accurately thus : the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Pre- 
perfect. Or, as their order is undisputed, they may be 
conveniently called the First, the Second, and the Third. 

I. The Imperfect Participle is that which ends com- 
monly in ing, and implies a continuance of the being, 
action, or passion ; as, being, loving, seeing, writing — being 
loved, being seen, being ivriting. 

II. The Perfect Participle is that which ends commonly 
in ed or en, and implies a completion of the being, action, 
or passion; as, been, loved, seen, written. 

III. The Preperfect Participle is that which takes the 
sign having, and implies a previous completion of the 
being, action, or passion ; as, having loved, having seen, 
having written — having been loved, having been writing, 
having been written. 

The First or Imperfect Participle, when simple, is al- 
ways formed by adding ing to the radical verb ; as look, 
looking: when compound, it is formed by prefixing being 



100 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAK. [PART II, 

to some other simple participle ; as, being reading, being 
read, being completed. 

The Second or Perfect Participle is always simple, and 
is regularly formed by adding d or ed to the radical 
verb : those verbs from which it is formed otherwise, , 
are inserted in the list as being irregular or redundant. 

The Third or Preperfect Participle is always compound, 
and is formed by prefixing having to the perfect, when 
the compound is double, and having been to the perfect 
or the imperfect, when the compound is triple : as, hav- 
ing spoken, having been spoken, having been speaking. 

Obs. 1. — Some have supposed that both the simple participles denote 
present time ; some have supposed that the one denotes present, and the 
other, past time ; some have supposed that neither has any regard to time ; 
and some have supposed that both are of all times. In regard to the man- 
ner of their signification, some have supposed the one to be active and the 
other to be passive ; some have supposed the participle in ing to be active 
or neuter, and the other active or passive ; and some have supposed that 
either of them may be active, passive, or neuter. Nor is there any more 
unanimity among grammarians, in respect to the compounds. Hence several 
different names have been loosely given to each of the participles ; and some- 
times with manifest impropriety ; as when Buchanan, in his conjugations, 
calls being Active — and been, having been, and having had, Passive. The 
First participle has been called the Present, the Imperfect, the Active, the 
Present active, the Present passive, the Present neuter ; the Second has been 
called the Perfect, the Past, the Passive, the Perfect active, the Perfect pas- 
sive, the Perfect neuter ; and the Third has been called the Compound, the 
Compound active, the Compound passive, the Compound perfect, the Plu- 
perfect, the Preterperfect, the Preperfect. But the application of a name is 
of little consequence, so that the thing itself be rightly understood by the 
learner. Grammar should be taught in a style at once neat and plain, clear 
and brief. Upon the choice of his terms the writer has bestowed much re- 
flection ; yet he finds it impossible either to please everybody, or to explain 
all the reasons for preference. 

Obs. 2. — The participle in ing represents the action or state as continuing 
and ever incomplete ; it is therefore rightly termed the Imperfect participle : 
whereas the participle in ed always has reference to the action as done and 
complete ; and is by proper contradistinction called the Perfect participle. Lt 
is hardly necessary to add, that the terms perfect and imperfect, as thus ap- 
plied to the English participles, have no reference to time, or to those tenses of 
the verb which are usually (but not very accurately) named by these epithets, 
The terms present and past do denote time, and are in a kind of oblique con- 
tradistinction ; but how well they apply to the participles may be seen by the 
following texts : " God was in Christ, "reconciling the world unto himself." — 
" We pray you in Christ's stead, be ye reconciled to God." — St. Paul. 

Obs. 3.— The participle in ing has, by many, been called the Present parti- 
ciple. But it is as applicable to past or future, as to present time ; otherwise 
such expressions as, " I had been writing," — " I shall be writing," would be 
solecisms. It has also been called the active participle. But it is not always 
active, even when derived from an active verb : for such expressions as, 
" The goods are selling,"— "The ships are now building," are in use, and 
not without authority. The distinguishing characteristic of this participle is, 
that it denotes an unfinished and progressive state of the being, action, or 
passion ; it is therefore properly denominated the Imperfect participle. _ If 
the term were applied with reference to time, it would be no more objection- 
able than the word present, and would be equally supported by the usage of 



CHAP. TO.} ETYMOLOGY.— PARTICIPLES.— CLASSES. 101 

the Greek linguists. This name is approved by Murray,* and adopted b? 
several of the more recent grammarians. See the works of Dr. Crombie, J. 
Grant, T. 0. Churchill, B. Hiley, B. H. Smart, M. Harrison, W. G. Lewis, 
J. M. W Culloch, E. Eazen, N. Butler, D. B. Tower, W. E. Wells, 0. W. and 
J. C. Sanders. 

Obs. 4. — The participle in ed, as is mentioned above, denotes a completion 
of the being, action, or passion, and should therefore be denominated the 
Perfect participle. But this completion may be spoken of as present, past, 
or future, for the participle itself has no tenses, and make3 no distinction of 
time, nor should the name be supposed to refer to the perfect tense. The 
perfect participle of transitive ver bs ; being used in the formation of passive 
verbs, is sometimes called the passive participle. It has a passive significa- 
tion, except when it is used in forming the compound tenses of the active 
verb. Hence the difference between the sentences, "I have written a let- 
ter," and, "I have a letter written:" — the former being equivalent to Scripsi 
literas, and the latter to Sunt mihi literal scrhptce,. 

Obs. 5. — The third participle has most generally been called the Compound 
or the Compound Perfect. The latter of these terms seems to be rather objec- 
tionable on account of its length ; and against the former it may be urged 
that, in the compound forms of conjugation, the first Or imperfect participle 
is a compound : as, being writing, being seen. Dr. Adam calls having loved 
the perfect participle active, which he says must be rendered in Latin by the 
pluperfect of the subjunctive, " as, he having loved, quum amavisset ,'" but 
it is manifest that the perfect participle of the verb to love, whether active or 
passive, is the simple word loved, and not this compound. Many writers 
erroneously represent the participle in ing as always active, and the partici- 
ple in ed as always passive ; and some, among whom is Buchanan, making 
no distinction between the simple perfect loved and the compound having 
loved, place the latter with the former, and call it passive also. But if this 
participle is to be named with reference to its meaning, there is perhaps no 
better term for it than the epithet Preperfect, — a word which explains it- 
self, like prepaid or prerequisite. Of the many other names, the most correct 
one is Pluperfect, — which is a term of very nearly the same meaning. Not 
because this compound is really of the pluperfect tense, but because it always 
denotes being, action, or passion, that is, or was, or will be, completed before 
the doing or being of something else; and, of course, when the latter thing 
is represented as past, the participle must correspond to the pluperfect tense 
of its verb ; as, "Having explained her views, it was necessary she should ex- 
patiate on the vanity and futility of the enjoyments promised by Pleasure." 
Jamieson's Bhet., v. 181. Here having explained is eauivalent to when she had 
explained. 

Obs. 6. — Participles often become adjectives^ and are construed before nouns 
to denote quality. The terms so converted form the class of participial ad' 
jectives. Words of a participial form may be regarded as adjectives. I. 
When they reject the idea of time, and denote something customary or 
habitual, rather than a transient act or state ; as, A lying rogue, i. e., one 
addicted to lying. 2. When they admit adverbs of comparison ; as,A more 
learned man. 3. When they are compounded with something that does not 
belong to the verb ; as, unfeeling, wafelt. There is no verb to unfeel ; there- 
fore, no participle unfeeling or unfelt. Adjectives are generally placed before 
their nouns ; participles, after them. 

Obs. 7. — Participles in ing often become nouns. When preceded by an 
article, an adjective, or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case, they are 
construed as nouns, and ought to have no regimen. A participle immedi- 

* w Th© most unexceptionable distinction which grammarians make between tha 
participles, is. that the one points to the continuation of the action, passion, or state 
denoted by the verb ; and the other, to the completion of it. Thus, the present par- 
ticiple signifies imperfect action, or action begun and not ended : as, ' I am writing $ 
letter.' The past participle signifies action perfected, or finished: 'I have written a 
letter.' — 'The" letter is written.'''''' — Murray's Grammar, 8vo, p. 65. "The first [par* 
ticiple] expresses a continuation: the others, a completion,''''— W. Allen's Gram* 
ISmo, London, 1813, p. 62. ^ 

y 



102 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR [PART IL 

ately preceded by a preposition, U not converted into a noun, and therefore 
retain! its regimen ; as, " I thank vou/or helping Jam." Participles m this 
construction correspond with the Latin gerund, arid are sometimes called 



Obs. 8.— To distinguish the participle from the participial noun, the learner 
should observe the following four things : 1. Nouns take articles and adjec- 
tives before them; participles, as such, do not. 2. Nouns may govern the 
possessive case, but not the objective ; participles may govern the objective 
case, but not the possessive. 3. Nouns may be the subjects or objects ot 
verbs ; participles cannot. 4. Participial nouns express actions as things ; 
participles refer actions to their agents or recipients. 

r Obs 9.— To distinguish the perfect participle from the preterit of the same 
form observe the seme, and see which of the auxiliary forms will express it; 
thus, loved for being loved, is a participle ; but loved for did love, is a preterit 
verb. 



ANALYSIS. 

An adjective, participle, noun, or pronoun, modifying 
or completing the predicate of a sentence, and relating 
to the subject, is called an attribute ; as, " Gold is yel- 
lowy — " The sun is shining." — -'' Honesty is the best 
policy." 

Obs. 1. — All verbs except to le comprehend within themselves both the 
predicate and the attribute, into which they may generally be resolved. For 
example, in the sentence " The sun shines," the verb shines is equivalent to 
is shining, is being the affirmative or predicative word, and shining, the at- 
tribute. 

Obs. 2. — The verb that connects the subject and the attribute, must be 
active-intransitive, passive, or neuter. It is sometimes called the copula^ 
because it couples or unites the subj'ect and the attribute. 

Obs. 3. — The verb to be, in most cases, only affirms or indicates otherwise, 
the connection existing between the subject and the attribute. When the 
latter is a noun, it may express, 1. Class ; as, " Cain was a murderer." 
2. Identity; as, "Cain was the murderer of Abel." 3. Name; as, "The 
child was called John.'''' When mere existence is predicated, the verb b* 
comprehends both the predicate and the attribute. 

Obs. 4.— Class, identity, name, or quality may be attributed to the subject 
in various ways : 

1. By affirming directly a connection between it and the subject, as in 

the preceding examples. 

2. By affirming it to belong to the subject, in connection with a particu- 

lar act or state of being ; as, " She looked a goddess, and she walked 
a queen."—" The sun stood still." 
8. By affirming a connection, as the result of a change ; as, " He has 

become a scholar." 
4. By affirming a connection, as the result of a process ; as, " He was 
elected President." — " The twig has grown a tree." 
Obs. 5. — The attribute is often used indefinitely, that is, without reference 
to any particular subject ; as, " To be good is to be happy.'''' — " To be a poet 
requires genius." iii analyzing, this may be called the indefinite attribute. 
Obs. 6. — An attribute is sometimes indirectly affirmed of, or otherwise 
connected with, the object of a verb ; as, " They elected him president." — ■ 
*' Vice has left him without friends'''' (i. e. friendless). This is to be consid- 
ered as a modification of the predicate, ana may be properly called the i** 
direct attribute. 



GHAP. VH.] ETYMOLOGY. 103 

Obs. 7. — The conjunction as is often employed to express the connection 
of the attribute with the subject or object to which it refers ; as, " She was 
known as Curiosity."— ^ ii They engaged her as a governess." 

Obs. 8 — The attribute, when it is a noun or a pronoun, is in the same case 
as the subject to which it refers ; as, "It is 7", be not afraid." — " Who is 
she ? " — " They believed it to be me. ' ' 

Obs. 9. — In analyzing a sentence it is most convenient to treat the attri- 
bute as a distinct part, keeping in view that it is dependent upon the sim- 
ple predicate, or verb, and forms a part of the general predicate. 

The principal parts of a sentence are the subject and 
the predicate, the object or attribute, if there be either, 
forming a part of the latter. 

The other parts may he, 1. Primary or secondary ad- 
juncts^ 2. Words used to express relation or connection, 
3. Independent words. 

Obs. — Of the parts of a sentence enumerated, the only essential parts are 
the subject and the predicate : the other two being accidental or occasional, 
and used only to modify, limit, or complete the predicate. They, however, 
differ so widely from other adjuncts, and perform so important an office in 
every sentence in which they occur, that grammatical analysis is facilitated, 
and the exact nature of the sentence more clearly exhibited, by treating 
them as distinct, even though subordinate, elements of the sentence. 

EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

PRAXIS V. — ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In the Fifth Praxis, it is required of the pupil — to classify 
and analyze the sentence according to the preceding praxis ; 
in addition, to point out the attributes and their adjuncts; 
and to parse the sentence as in the preceding praxes, distin- 
guishing besides, the classes and modifications of the verbs. 
Thus :— 

EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED. 

" Can that be the man who deceived me ?" 
Analysis. — This is a complex interrogative sentence, consisting of the two 

simple clauses, Can that be the man ? and Who deceived me, connected 

by who. 
The subject of the principal clause is that ; the predicate is can be ; and 

the attribute is man. 
The subject and the predicate have no adjuncts ; the adjuncts of the 

attribute are the, and the dependent clause. 
The subject of the dependent clause is who ; the predicate, deceived; and 

the object, me. Neither has any adjuncts. 
Pausing.— Can is a verb auxiliary to the principal verb be, because it ia 

added to the present infinitive to form the particular mood and tense 

in which the verb is found. 
That is a pronominal adjective, representing man understood, in the third 

person, singular number, masculine gender, and is in the nominative 

case, because it is the subject of the verb can, be, being used as 4 

noun. 



104 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART H. 

Can be is a verb, from be, was, being, been; it is irregular, because it does 
not form its preterit and perfect participle by assuming d or ed; 
neuter, because it expresses simply being ; it is found in tlie potential 
mood, because it expresses possibility ; in the present tense, because 
it has reference to what now exists ; it agrees with its subject that in 
the third person and singular number. (See Definition, page 71.) 

The is the definite article. 

Man is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, and in the nominative case, because it is an attribute relating 
to the subject that. 

Who is a relative pronoun, because it represents the antecedent word 
man, and connects the principal and the dependent clause of the sen- 
tence. It is of the third person, singular number, masculine gender ; 
and is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb 
deceived. 

Deceived is a verb, from deceive, deceived, deceiving, deceived ; it is regular, 
because it forms its preterit and perfect participle by assuming d ; 
active-transitive, because it expresses action and has me for its object; 
it is found in the indicative mood, because it simply declares : in the 
imperfect tense, because it expresses time fully past ; and it agrees 
with its subject who in the third person and singular number. 

Me is a personal pronoun, because it shows by its form that it is of the 
first person ; it is of the singular number, masculine gender ; and in 
the objective case, because it is the object of the verb, deceived ; it ia 
declined, Nom. I, Poss. my, or mine, Obj. me. 

LESSON I. 

Jcvhn has been very sick. William's brother, Henry, might 
have been a prosperous man. He has become a drunkard. 
Liberty is a great blessing. The leaves of roses are very fra- 
grant. "William rapidly became a good scholar. The project 
surely could not have been deemed a feasible one. The con- 
tract was pronounced fraudulent. Cool blows the summer 
breeze. He was born a lord. The princess was crowned 
queen. Washington could have been thrice elected president. 
The memory of mischief is no desirable fame. Art is long 
and time is fleeting. How wonderful is sleep ! The soul of 
the diligent shall be made fat. 

LESSON II. 

The seed which was planted has become a large tree. 

Whatever we do often, soon becomes easy to us. 

They, who never were his favorites, did not expect so many 
kind attentions. 

Columbus must indeed have been an extraordinary man. 

The man who feels truly noble, will become so. 

Thomas Jefferson, who wrote the Declaration of Indeper* 
dence, was elected the third president. 

Who was it that made that great outcry ? 

Errors that originate in ignorance, are generally excusable. 

He that loveth pleasure, will soon become a poor man. 

When the atmosphere is clear, the distant hills look blue. 



CHAP. VIII.] ETYMOLOGY. — ADVERBS. — CLASSES. 105 



LESSON III. 

He might have been guilty, but no sufficient proof could be 
found. 

If you diligently cultivate youv mind in youth, you will be 
happy when you grow old. 

A wicked messenger falleth into mischief; but a faithful 
ambassador is health. 

The liberal soul shall be made fat; and he 4 that watereth 
shall be watered also himself. 

The fear of the Lord is the instruction of wisdom ; and 
before honor is humility. 

If we do not carefully exercise our faculties, they will soon 
become impaired. 

It may have escaped his notice ; but such was the fact. 

Science may raise thee to eminence ; but religion alone ca» 
guide thee to felicity. 

Soft is the strain when zephyr gently blows, 

And the smooth stream in smoother numbers flows. 

The shepherd of the Alps am I, 

The castles far beneath me lie ; 
Here first the ruddy sunlight gleams, 
Here linger last the parting beams. 

The mountain boy am I. 



CHAPTER Yin.— OF ADYERBS. 

An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, an 
adjective, or an other adverb ; and generally expresses 
time, place, degree, or manner : as, They are now here. 
Studying very diligently. 

Obs. 1.— Adverbs briefly express what would otherwise require several 
words ; as, Now, for at this time— Here, for in this place— Very, for in a high 
degree— Diligently, for in an industrious manner. 

Obs. 2. — Ihere are several customary combinations of short words which' 
are used adverbially, and which some grammarians do not analyze in pars* 
ing ; as, Not at all, at length, in vain. But all words that convey distinct 
ideas, should be taken separately. 

CLASSES. 

Adverbs may be reduced to four general classes: 
namely, adverbs of time, of place, of degree, and of 
manner, 

5* 



106 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR [PART II. 

I. Adverbs of time are those which, answer to the 
question, When t How long f How soon f or How often ? 
including these which ask. 

Obs. — Adverbs of time may be subdivided as follows : — 

1. Of time present; as, Now, yet, to-day, presently, instantly, immediately. 

2. Of time pa&t; as, Already, yesterday, lately, recently, anciently, hereto- 
fore, hitherto, since, ago, erewhile. 

3. Of time to come ; as, To-morrow, hereafter, henceforth, by-and-by, soon, 
erelong. 

4. Of time relative ; as, When, then, before, after, while, or whilst, till, un- 
til, seasonably, betimes, early, late. 

5. Of time absolute ; as, Always, ever, never, aye, eternally, perpetually \ 



6. Of time repeated ; as, Often, oft., again, occasionally, frequently, some- 
times, seldom, rarely, now-and-then, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, once, twice, 
thrice, or three times, &c. 

7. Of the order of time; as, First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c. 

II. Adverbs of place are those which answer to the 
question, Where t Whither? Whence? or W hereabout t 
including these which ask. 

Obs. — Adverbs of place may be subdivided as follows : — 

1. Of place in which ; as, Where, here, there, yonder, above, below, about, 
around, somewhere, anywhere, elsewhere, everywhere, nowhere, wherever, within, 
without, whereabout, hereabout, thereabout. 

2. Of place to which; as, Whither, hither, thither, m, up, down, bach, forth, 
inwards, upwards, downwards, backwards, forwards. 

3. Of place from which ; as, Whence, hence, thence, away, out. 

4. Of the order of place; as, First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c. 

III. Adverbs of degree are those which answer to the 
question, How much f How little ? or, to the idea of more 
or less. 

Obs. — Adverbs of degree may be subdivided as follows :— 

1. Of excess or abundance ; as, Much, too, very, greatly, far, besides ; chiefly, 
principally, mainly, generally ; entirely, full, fully,' completely, perfectly, 
wholly, totally, altogether, all, quite, clear, stark; exceedingly, excessively, ex- 
travagantly, intolerably: immeasurably, inconceivably, infinitely. 

2. Of equality or sufficiency ; as, Enough, sufficiently, equally, so, as, even. 

3. Of deficiency or abatement ; as, Little, scarcely, hardly, merely, barely, 
only, but, partly, partially, nearly, almost. 

4. Of quantity in the abstract ; as, Bow, (meaning, in what degree,) how- 
ever, howsoever, everso, something, nothing, anything, and other nouns of 
quantity used adverbially. 

IV. Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the 
question, How f or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, 
show how a subject is regarded. 

Obs. — Adverbs of manner may be subdivided as follows: — 

1. Of manner from quality ; as, Well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, quickly^ 
and many others formed by adding ly to adjectives of quality. 

2. Of affirmation or assent ; as, Yes, yea, ay, verily, truly, indeed, surely^ 
certainly, doubtless, undoubtedly, certes, forsooth, amen. 

3. Of negation ; as, No, nay, not, nowise. 

4. Of doubt ; as, Fcrhwps, haply, possibly, perchance, peradventure, may-be. 



CHAP. IX.] ETYMOLOGY.— ADVERBS.— CONJUNCTIONS. 107 

■5, Of mode or way ; as, Thus, so, how, somehow, however, howsoever, like, else, 
otherwise, across, together, apart, asunder, namely, particularly, necessarily^ 
6. Of cause; as, Why, wherefore, therefore, 

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

Adverbs sometimes perform the office of conjunctions, and 
serve to connect sentences, as well as to express some circum- 
stance of time, place, degree, or manner : adverbs that are so 
used, are called conjunctive adverbs. ! 

Obs. 1. — Conjunctive adverbs often relate equally to two verbs in different 
clauses, on which account it is the more necessary to distinguish them from 
others ; as, " They feared when they heard that they were Romans." — Acts, 
xvi, 38. 

Obs, 2. — The following words are the most frequently used as conjunctive 
adverbs : after, again, also, as, before, besides, else, even, hence, however, more- 
over, nevertheless, otherwise, since, so, then, thence, therefore, till, until, when, 
where, wherefore, while or whilst. 

Obs. 8. — Adverbs of time, place, and manner, are generally connected with 
verbs or participles ; those of degree are more frequently prefixed to adjec- 
tives or adverbs. 

Obs. 4. — The adverbs here, there, and where, when prefixed to prepositions, 
have the force of pronouns : as, Hereby, for by this ; thereby, for by that ; 
whereby, for by which. Compounds of this kind are, however, commonly 
reckoned adverbs. They are now somewhat antiquated. 

Obs. 5. — The adverbs how, when, whence, where, whither, why, and where- 
fore, are frequently used as interrogatives ; but, as such 3 they severally be- 
long to the classes under which they are placed. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Adverbs have no modifications, except that a few are 
compared after the manner of adjectives : as, Soon, sooner, 
soonest; — often, oftener, oftenest ; — long, longer, longest. 

The following are irregularly compared : well, better, best; 
badly or ill, worse, worst ; little, less, least ; much, more, most ; 
far, farther, farthest ; forth, further, furthest. 

Obs. 1. — Most adverbs of quality, will admit the comparative adverbs more 
and most, less and least, before them : as, wisely, more wisely, most wisely ; 
culpably, less culpably least culpably. But these should be parsed separately: 
the degree of comparison, as an inflection, belongs only to the adverb pre- 
fixed ; though the latter word also may be said to be compared by means of 
the former. 

Obs. 2. — As comparison does not belong to adverbs in general, it should 
not be mentioned in parsing, except in the case of those few which are varied 
by it. 



CHAPTER IX.— OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or 
sentences in construction, and to show the dependence 



108 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IL 

of the terms so connected : as, " Thou and he are happy, 
hecause you are good." — L. Murray. 

CLASSES. 

Conjunctions are divided into two general classes, 
copulative and disjunctive; and some of each of these 
sorts are corresponsive. 

I. A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that de- 
notes an addition, a cause, or a supposition : as, " He 
and I shall not dispute ; for r if he has any choice,, I shall 
readily grant it.' y 

IL A disjunctive conjunction is a conjunction that de- 
notes opposition of meaning: as ? u Be not overcome [byj 
evil, but overcome evil with good." — Rom., xii r 2L 

III. The correspcmsive conjunctions are those which are 
used in pairs, so that one refers or answers to an other : 
as, " John came neither eating nor drinking." — Matthew, 
xi, 18. 

LIST OF THE CONJUNCTIONS, 

The following are the principal conjunctions : — 

1. Copulative; And, as, both, because^ even, for, if, that y fhen^ 
since, seeing, so. 

2. Disjunctive ; Or, nor, either, neither, than, though, al- 
though, yet, but, except, whether, lest, unless^ save r notwithstand- 
ing. 

3. Corresponsive ; Both — and; as — as; as — so; if— then ; 
either — or; neither — nor; whether — or; though, or although 
< — gel. 



CHAPTEB X.— OF PREPOSITIONS. 

A Preposition is a word used to express some rela- 
tion of different things or thoughts to each other, and is 
generally placed before a noun or a pronoun : as,. The 
paper lies before me on the desk. 

Obs. — Every relation ©f course implies more than one subject, In all cor- 
rect language, the grammatical relation of the words corresponds exactly to 
therelation of the things or ideas expressed ; for the relation of words, is 
their dependence on each "other according to the sense. To a preposition, the 
antecedent term of relation may he a noun, an adjective^ a pronoun, a verb, a 
participle, or an adverb ; and the subsequent term may he a noun, a pronoun, 
an infinitive verb, or a participle. The learner must observe that the terms 
©f relation are frequently transposed. 



CHAP. XI.] ETYMOLOGY.— INTERJECTIONS.— LIST. 109 

LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 

The following are the principal prepositions, arranged al- 
phabetically : Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, 
amid or amidst, among or amongst, around, at, athwart ; — Bat- 
ing, before, behind, below, beneath, beside or besides, between or 
betwixt, beyond, by; — Concerning ;— Down, during; — Ere, 
except, excepting ; — For, from ; — In, into ;— Mid or midst; — ? 
Notwithstanding ; — Of, off, on, out-of over, overthwart ; — Past, 
pending ; — Regarding, respecting, round ; — Since ; — Through, 
throughout, till, to, touching, toward or towards ; — Under, un- 
derneath, until, unto, up, upon ; — With, within, without. 

Obs. 1. — The words in the preceding list are generally prepositions. But 
when any of them are employed without a subsequent term of relation, they 
are either adjectives or adverbs. For, when it signifies because, is a conjunc- 
tion ; without, when used for unless, and notwithstanding, when placed before 
a nominative, are usually referred to the class of conjunctions also. 

Obs. 2. — Several words besides those contained in the foregoing list, are 
for have been) occasionally employed in English as prepositions: as, A t 
(chiefly used before participles,) abaft, adown, afore, aloft, aloof, alongside, 
anear, aneath, anent, aslant, aslope, astride, atween, atwixt, besouth, bywest y 
cross, dehors, despite, inside, left-hand, maugre, minus, onto, opposite, outside t 
per, plus, sans, spite, thorough, traverse, versus, via, withal, withinside. 



CHAPTER XI.— OF INTERJECTIONS. 

An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to 
indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind: as, 
Oh ! alas I ah ! jpoh ! pshaw ! avaunt ! 

Obs. — Of pure interjections but few are ordinarily admitted into books. 
As words or sounds of this kind we rather to indicate feeling than to ex- 
press thought, they seldom have any truly definable signification. Their 
use also is so variable, that there can be no very accurate classification of 
them. Some significant words properly belonging to other classes, are 
ranked with interjections, when uttered with emotion and in an unconnected 
manner. 

LIST OF THE INTEKJECTIONS. 

The following are the principal interjections, arranged ac- 
cording to the emotions which they are generally intended to 
indicate: — 1. Of joy; eighf hey! iol — 2. Of sorrow; oh! ah! 
koo ! alas ! alack ! lacJcaday ! welladay ! or welaway ! — 3. Of 
wonder; heigh! ha! strange! indeed! — 4. Of wishing, earn- 
estness, or vocative address ; (often with a noun or pronoun 
in the nominative absolute;) 0! — 5. Of praise; well-done! 
good! bravo! — 6. Of surprise with disapproval ; loheio ! hoity- 
toity ! hoida! zounds! what! — 7. Of pain or fear ; oh! ooh! 
ah! eh! dear! — 8. Of contempt; fudge! pugh!< pohl 

10 



110 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART1L 




begont 
toko! what-ho! hollo! holla! hallo! halloo! hoy! ahoy!- 
12. Of exultation ; ah! aha! huzza! hey! heyday! hurrah! 
— 13. Of laughter; ha, ha, ha; he, he, he; te-hee, te-hee. — 14. 
Of salutation ; welcome! hail! all-hail! — 15. Of calling to 
attention; ho! lo ! la! law! looh! see! behold! hark! — 16. 
Of calling to silence; hush! hist! whist! V/ aw! mum! 
—17. Of dread or horror; oh! ha! hah! what!— 18. Of 
languor or weariness; heigh-ho! heigh-ho-hum ! — 19. Of stop- 
ping; hold! soft! avast! whoh! — 20. Of parting; fare well! 
adieu! good-by ! good-day! — 21. Of knowing or detecting; 
oho! ahah! ay-ay ! — 22. Of interrogating ; eh? ha? hey? 

Obs.— Bes>des the?f», there are several others, too often heard, which are 
unworthy to he considered as parts of a cultivated language. Thefrequent 
use of interjections, savours more of thoughtlessness than of sensibility. 



ANALYSIS. 

When two or more subjects, connected by a conjunc- 
tion, belong to the same predicate, or two or more con- 
nected predicates have the same subject, the sentence 
should be considered simple with a compound subject or 



A phrase is a combination of two or more words ex- 
pressing some relation of ideas, but no entire proposi- 
tion ; as, " Of a good disposition." — " To be plain with 
you." — " Having loved his own." 

A phrase may be used in three ways ; namely, 1. As 
one of the principal parts of a sentence ; 2. As an ad- 
junct ; 3. It may be independent. 

An adjunct phrase is adjective, adverbial, or explana- 
tory. 

A substantive phrase is one used in the place of a 
noun ; as, " To do good is the duty of all." 

An independent phrase is one that is not related to, 
or connected with, any word in the rest of the sentence ; 
as, "He failing, who shall meet success?" — "To be 
plain with you, I think you in fault." 

The principal part of a phrase is that upon which all 
the others depend ; as, " Under every misfortune" — 
" Having exhausted every expedient." 



CHAP. XI.] ETYMOLOGY. Ill 

Phrases are either simple^ complex, or compound. 

A simple phrase is one unconnected with any other ; 
as, "Of an obliging disposition." 

A complex phrase is one that contains a phrase or a 
clause, as an adjunct of its principal part ; as, "By the 
bounty of Heaven." — " To be plain with you." 

A compound phrase is one composed of two or more 
co-ordinate phrases; as, "Stooping down and looking 
in." 

Phrases are also classified as to their form, depending upon 
the introducing word, or the principal part ; thus, 

1. A phrase, introduced hy a preposition, is called a pre- 

positional phrase y as, "By doing good." — "Of an 
engaging disposition." 

2. A phrase the principal part of which is a verb in the 

infinitive mood, is called an infinitive phrase ; as, 
" To be good is to be happy. 11 

3. A phrase the principal word of which is a participle, is 

called a 'participial phrase y as, "A measure founded 
on justice. 11 

Obs. — A preposition that introduces a phrase, serves only to express th® 
relation between the principal part, and the word of the sentence, on which 
the phrase depends. 

A phrase, used as the subject or the object of a verb, must be 
substantive in office, and, with a strict adherence to grammati- 
cal rules, can only be infinitive in form ; as, " To disobey 
parents is sinful." — " William loves to study grammar. 11 Par- 
ticipial phrases are, however, sometimes used by good writers 
in this way ; as, " Hunting the buffalo, is one of the sports of 
the West." — " John's father opposed his going to sea. 11 [See 
Obs. 8, page 102 ; and Note III., with Obs. 3, under it, Syntax, 
Rule XIV.] 

A phrase, used as an attribute, may be substantive or adjec- 
tive in office, and may have the following forms : 

1. Infinitive ; as, "The object of punishment is to reform 
the guilty. 11 — " His conduct is greatly to be admired. 11 
[In the latter example, the phrase is adjective, to be 
admired being equivalent to admirable^ 
2o Prepositional; as, "He is in good health. 11 — "The 
train was behind time 11 [In each of these examples, 
the phrase is adjective^ 
An adjective phrase may have the following forms : 

1. Prepositional ; as, " Carelessness in the use of money % 



112 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IL 

2. Infinitive ; as, " The desire to do good is praise- 

worthy." 

3. Participial ; as, " Seeing the danger, he avoided it." 
An adverbial phrase may have the following forms : 

1. Prepositional ; as, " He was attentive to his business." 

2. Infinitive ; as, " They were anxious to ascertain the 

truth." 

3. Idiomatic ; as, " In vain." — "Day by day." — "By and 

by." — "As a general thing." 

An explanatory phrase is always substantive in office, and 
infinitive in form ; as, " It is pleasant to see the sun." 

The independent phrase is various in form and character. 
It may be distinguished as, 

1. Infinitive ; as, " To be candid, I was in fault." 

2. Participial • as, " Considering the circumstances, much 

credit is due." 

3. Vocative; as, " Boast not, my dear friend, of to-morrow." 

4. Pleonastic ; as, " The blessing of the Lord, it maketh 

rich." 

5. Absolute ; as, " The sun having risen, the mists were 

dispersed." 

Obs. 1. — The last form of this phrase is often adverbial in signification ; 
as in the example given, in -which it is equivalent to the clause, when the 
gun had risen. It is, therefore, independent only in construction. 

Obs. 2. — An adverbial phrase may he modified by an adverb ; as, " It 
lasts but for a moment ;" i. e. but equivalent to only, and modifying the ad- 
verbial phrase, for a moment. 

Obs. 3. — A phrase or a clause is sometimes used as the object of a prepo- 
sition, and thus forms a prepositional phrase of a complex or anomalous 
character; as, "Blows mildew from between-hu-shriveled-ligs." — " That de- 
pends on who-can-run-ihe-fastest." 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

PRAXIS VI. — ETYMOLOGICAL. 

In the Sixth Praxis, it is required of the pupil — to classify 
and analyze the sentence as in the preceding praxis y to 
classify and analyze each phrase • and to parse the sentence, 
distinguishing the parts of speech, and all their classes and 
modifications. Thus : — 

EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED. 

" Ah. ! who can tell the triumphs of the mind, 
By truth illumined, and by taste refined ?" 



CHAP. XI.] ETYMOLOGY. 113 

Analysis. — This is a simple interrogative sentence. 



ject, are 
adjective phrase, of the mind illumined by truth, 
and refined by taste. 

The principal part of the phrase is mind; its adjuncts are the and the 
compound adjective phrase, illumined hj truth, and refined by taste, 
"which consists of the two coordinate participial phrases connected 
by and. 

The principal part of the former is illumined, and its adjunct, the simple 
adverbial phrase, by truth ; the principal part of the latter is refined, 
and its adjunct, the simple adverbial phrase by taste. Ah is an inde- 
pendent word. 
Parsing. — Ah / is an interjection, because it is a simple exclamation of won- 
der or admiration. 

Who is an interrogative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
masculine gender ; and in the nominative case, because it is the sub- 
ject of the verb can tell. 

By is a preposition, because it shows the relation between truth and illu- 
mined, the phrase by truth being an adjunct of illumined. 

Truth is a common noun, and. abstract, because it is the name of a quality. 
It is of the third person, singular number, neuter gender ; and in the 
objective case, because it is the object of the preposition by. 

Illumined is a perfect participle from the regular passive verb be illumined; 
It performs the office of a verb, by expressing passion \ and of an ad 4 
jective, by modifying the noun mind. 

And is a conjunction, because it connects the two phrases, ty truth illu- 
mined, by taste refined y it is copulative, because it expresses, an ad- 
dition. 
fl^f" [Parse the other words as in the preceding praxes.] ■ 

LESSOR I. 

Frankness, suavity, and benevolence, were prominent traits 
in the character of Dr. Franklin. 

Industry, good sense, and virtue, arc essential to health, 
wealth, and happiness. - 

Rural employments are certainly natural, amusing, and 
healthful. 

The study of natural history expands and elevates the mind. 

Get justly, use soberly, distribute cheerfully, and live con- 
tentedly. 

Junius Brutus, the son of Marcus Brutus, and Collatinus, 
the husband of Lucretia, were chosen the first consuls in 
Rome. 

The son^bred in sloth, becomes a spendthrift and a profli- 
gate ; and goes out of the world a beggar. 

In the varieties of life, we are inured to habits both of the 
active and the suffering virtues. 

By disappointments and trials, the violence of our passions 
is tamed. 

Having sold his patrimony he engaged in merchandise. 

The bounty displayed in the earth, equals the grandeur 
manifested in the heavens. 

10* 



114 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GKAMMAR. [PART IL 



LESSON II. 



He, stooping down and looking in, saw the linen clothes 
lying ; yet went he not in. 

Cheerfulness keeps up a kind of day-light in the mind, and 
fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity. 

Sitting is the best posture for deliberation ; standing for per- 
suasion ; a judge, therefore, should speak sitting; a pleader, 
standing. 

The pleasures of sense resemble a foaming torrent ; which, 
after a disorderly course, speedily runs out, and leaves an empty 
and offensive channel. 

Most of the troubles which we meet with in the world, arise 
from an irritable temper, or from improper conduct. 

The meeting was so respectable, that the propriety of its 
decision can hardly be questioned. 

They who are moderate in their expectations, meet with few 
disappointments. 

The mighty tempest and the hoary waste, 
Abrupt and deep, stretch'd o'er the buried earth, 
Awake to solemn thought. 

Loose, then, from earth the grasp of fond desire, 
Weigh anchor, and some happier clime explore. 



CHAPTEE XII.— EXAMINATION. 
QUESTIONS ON ETYMOLOGY. 

LESSON I. — PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Of what does Etymology treat? 
How many and what are the parts of speech ? 
What is an article ?— What are the examples ? 
What is a noun ?— What examples are given ? 
What is an adjective ?— How is this exemplified ? 
What is a pronoun ?— How is this exemplified ? 
What is a verb ?— How is this exemplified ? 
What is a participle ?— How is this exemplified * 
What is an adverb ?— How is this exemplified ? 
What is a conjunction ?— How is this exemplified ? 
What is a preposition ?— How is this exemplified ? 
What is an interjection ?— What examples are given? 

LESSON n. — PARSING. 

What is Parsing t What is a sentence ? 

What is a perfect definition f— What is a rule of grammar? 

What is a praxis? and what the literal meaning of the Word? 

What is an example? What is an exercise ? 

What is required of the pupil in the eers'3 praxis of parsing. 



CHAP. XII.] ETYMOLOGY. — QUESTIONS. 115 

What is required in each of the three Exercises given ? 

How is the following example parsed? "The patient ox submits to the 
yoke, and meekly performs the labour required of him." 
[Now parse, in like manner, the other examples under the First Praxis.] 

LESSON III. — ARTICLES. 

What is an Article ? — Mention the examples ? 

Are an and a different articles, or the same ? 

When is an used ? and what are the examples? 

When is a used ? and what are the examples ? 

What form of the article do the sounds of w and y require ? 

Eepeat the alphabet, with an or a before the name of each letter. 

Name the parts of speech, with an or a before each name. 

How are the two articles distinguished in grammar? 

Which is the definite article, and what does it denote ? 

Which is the indefinite article, and what does it denote? 

What modifications have the articles ? 

LESSON TV.— NOUNS. 

What is a Noun ? — Can you give some examples ? 

Into what general classes are nouns divided f 

What is a. proper noun ? — a common noun ? 

What particular classes are included among common nouns ? 

What is a collective noxm ? — an abstract noun ? — a verbal or participial noun I 

What is a thing sui generis ? 

What modifications have nouns ? 

What are Persons in grammar ? 

How many persons are there, and what are they called ? 

What is the first person? — the second person? — the third person? 

What are Numbers in grammar ? 

How many numbers are there, and what are they called ? 

What is the singular number ? — the plural number? 

How is the plural number of nouns regularly formed ? 

What are the rules for adding * and es to form the plural ? 

LESSON V. — NOUNS. 

What are Genders in grammar ? 

How many genders are there, and what are they called ? 

What is the masculine gender? — the feminine gender? — the neuUr gender? 

What are Cases in grammar ? 

How many cases are there, and what are they called ? 

What is the nominative case ? 

What is the subject of a verb ? 

What is the possessive case ? 

How is the possessive case of nouns formed? 

What is the objective case? 

What is the object of a verb, participle, or preposition ? 

What is the declension of a noun ? 

How do you decline the nouns friend, man, fox, and fir/? 

LESSON VI. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

What is Analysis t — What is the subject of a sentence ? 
What is a predicate ? — What is a proposition ? 
What is a simple sentence t 

How are simple sentences divided ? — Define each. 
What is required of the pupil in the Second Praxis? 

LESSON VH. — ADJECTIVES. 

What is an Adjective ? — How is this exemplified ? 
Into what classes may adjectives be divided ? 

What is a common adjective ? — a proper adjective ? — a numeral adjective ? — 4 
pronominal adjective ? — a. participial adjective ? — a compound adjective I 



116 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IL 

"What modifications have adjectives ? 
What is Comparison in grammar ? 
How many, and what are the degrees of comparison ? 

What is the positive degree ? — the comparative degree ? — the superlative de- 
gree? 
What adjectives cannot be compared? 
What adjectives are compared by means of adverbs? 
How are adjectives regularly compared ?— Compare great, wide, and hoi. 
To what adjectives are er and est applicable ? 
]s there any other mode of expressing the degrees ? 
How are the degrees of diminution expressed ? 
How do you compare good, bad, or ill, little^ much, and many? 
How do you compare far, near, fore, hind, in, out, up, low, and latet 

LESSON Vin. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

What are Adjuncts ? — How are they divided ? 

What are primary adjuncts ? — What are secondary adjuncts ? 

What is an adjective adjunct ? — An adverbial adjunct ? 

What is an explanatory adjunct ? 

How may the subject, predicate, and object be modified ? 

What is required of the pupil in the Third Praxis ? 

LESSON IX. — PRONOUNS. 

What is a Pronoun ? — Give the example. 

How are pronouns divided ? 

What is & personal pronoun ? — Tell the personal pronouns. 

What is a relative pronoun ? — Tell the relative pronouns. 

What peculiarity has the relative what ? 

What is an interrogative pronoun ? — Tell the interrogatives. 

What modifications have pronouns ? 

What is the declension or a pronoun. 

How do you decline the pronouns I, thou, he, she, and it? 

What is said of the compound personal pronouns ? 

How do you decline who, which, what, and that ? 

How do you decline the compound relative pronouns ? 

LESSON X. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

What is a Clause ? — How may clauses be connected ? 
What is a dependent clause ? — A principal clause ? 
What is a complex sentence t — A compound sentence? 
What is required of the pupil in the Fourth Praxis ? 

LESSON XI. — VERBS. 

What is a Verb ?— What are the examples ? 

How are verbs divided with respect to their form? 

What is a regular verb ?— an irregular verb ?— a redundant verb ?— idefectin 

How are verbs divided with respect to their signification ? 

What is an active-transitive verb?— an active-mtransiUve verb?— a pasrivt 

verb ?— a neuter verb ? 
What modifications have verbs ? 
What are Moods in grammar? 

How many moods are there, and what are they called? 
What is the infinitive mood?— the indicative mood ?— the potential mood?— 

tne subjunctive mood /—the imperative mood ? 



LESSON XH. — VERBS. 

What are Tenses in grammar ? 

How many tenses are there, and what are they called? 

What is the present tense?— the imperfect tense?— tl 



present tense?— the imperfect tense?— the perfect tense ?— tho 
pluperfect tense ?— -the first-future tense ?— the smmd-fiOure tense ? 



CHAP. XII.] ETYMOLOGY.— QUESTIONS. 117 

What are the Person and Number of a verb ? 
How many persons and numbers belong to verbs 1 
How are the second and third persons singular formed ? 
What is the conjugation of a verb? 

What are the principal parts in the conjugation of a verb! 
What is a verb cabled which wants some of these parts? 
What is an auxiliary in grammar? 
What verbs are used as auxiliaries ? 

LESSON Xni. — CONJUGATION. 

What is the simplest form of an English conjugation ? 

What is the first example of conjugation ? 

What are the principal parts of the verb love ? 

How many and what tenses has the infinitive mood ? — the indicative ? — the 
'potential? — the subjunctive? — the imperative? 

What is the verb love in the Infinitive, present ?— perfect ? — Indicative, pres- 
ent ? — imperfect ? — perfect ? — pluperfect ? — first-future ? — second-future ?— 
Potential, present ? — imperfect ? — perfect ? — pluperfect ? — Subjunctive, pres- 
ent ? — imperfect ? — Imperative, present ? What are its participles? 

LESSON XTV. — SYNOPSIS. 

What is the synopsis of the verb love, in the first person singular ? — second 
person singular? — third person singular? — first person plural? — second 
person plural ? — third person plural ? 

LESSON XV. — THE VERB SEE. 

What is the second example of conjugation? 
How is the verb see conjugated throughout? 

How do you form a synopsis of the verb see, with the pronoun I? thou ? he? 
we? you? they? 

LESSON XVI. — THE VEEB BE. 

What is the third example of conjugation ? 
How is the verb be conjugated throughout? 

How do you form a synopsis of the verb be, with the nominative I? thou? 
he? we? you? they? the man? the men? 

LESSON XVII. — COMPOUND FORM. 

How else may active and neuter verbs be conjugated ? 
What peculiar meaning does this form convey ? 
What is the fourth example of conjugation? 
How is the verb read conjugated in the compound form? 
How do you form a synopsis of the verb be reading, with the nominative I? 
thou? he? we? you? they? the boy ? the boys? 

LESSON XVIH. — PASSIVE FORM. 

How are passive verbs formed ? 
What is the fifth example of conjugation ? 
How is the passive verb be loved, conjugated throughout? 
How do you form a synopsis of the verb be loved, with the nominative // 
thou? he? we? you? they? the child? the children? 

LESSON XIX. — OTHER FORMS. 

How is a verb conjugated negatively? 

How is the form of negation exemplified ? 

How is a verb conjugated interrogatively? 

How is the form of question exemplified ? 

How is a verb conjugated interrogatively and negativity? 

How is the ibrm of negative question exemplified ? 



118 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IL 

LESSON XX. — IRREGULAR VERBS. 

What is an irregular verb ? 

flow many irregular verbs are there ? — and whence are they derived ? 

How does the list exhibit the irregular verbs ? 

What are the principal parts of the following verbs : — Arise, — Be, bear, beat, 
begin, behold, beset, bestead, bid, bind, bite, bleed, break, breed, bring, 
buy, — Cast, chide, choose, cleave, cling, come, cost, cut, — Do, draw, drink, 
drive,— Eat,— Fall, feed, feel, fight, find, flee, fling, fly, forbear, forsake, 
— Get, give, go, grow,— Have, hear, hide, hit, hold, hurt,— Keep, know ? 

LESSON XXI.— IRREGULAR VEEBS. 

What are the principal parts of the following verbs : — Lead, leave, lend, let, 
lie, lose, — Make, meet, — Put, — Read, rend, rid, ride, ring, rise, run, — Sav, 
see, seek, sell, send, set, shed, shoe, shoot, shut, shred, shrink, sing, sink, 
sit, slay, sling, slink, smite, speak, spend, spin, spit, spread, spring, stand, 
steal, stick, sting, stink, stride, strike, swear, swim, swing, — Take, teach, 
tear, tell, think, thrust, tread, — Wear, win, write ? 

LES30N XXH. — REDUNDANT VERBS. 

What is a redundant verb ? How many redundant verbs are there ? What 
are the principal parts of the following verbs : — Abide, awake, — -Belay, 
bend, bereave, beseech, bet, betide, bide, blend, bless, blow, build, burn, 
burst, — Catch, clothe, creep, crow, curse, — Dare, deal, dig, dive, dream, 
dress, dwell, — Freeze, — Geld, gild, gird, grave, grind, — Hang, heat, heave, 
hew, — Kneel, knit, — Lade, lay, lean, leap, learn, light, — Mean, mow, 
mulct? 

LESSON XXni. — REDUNDANT VERBS. 

What are the principal parts of the following verbs : — Pass, pay, pen, plead, 
prove, — Quit, — Rap, reave, rive, roast, — Saw, seethe, shake, shape, shave, 
shear, shine, show, sleep, slide, slit, smell, sow, speed, spell, spill, split, 
spoil, stave, stay, string, strive, strow, sweat, sweep, swell, — Thrive, 
throw, — Wake, wax, weave, wed, weep, wet, whet, wind, wont, work, 
wring? 

What is a defective verb ? — What tenses do such verbs lack ? 

What verbs are defective ? and wherein are they so ? 

LESSON XXTV. — PARTICIPLES. 

What is a Particd?le ? and how is it generally formed ? 

How many kinds of participles are there ? and what are they called ? 

How is the imperfect participle defined ? and what are the examples ? 

How is the perfect participle defined ? and what are the examples ? 

How is the preperfect participle defined ? and what are the examples ? 

How is the first or imperfect participle formed ? 

How is the second or perfect participle formed ? 

How is the third or preperfect participle formed ? 

What are the participles of the following verbs, according to the simplest 
form of conjugation: — Repeat, study, return, mourn, seem, rejoice, appear, 
approach, suppose, think, set, come, rain, stand, know, deceive? 

LESSON XXV. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING 

What is an Attribute ? 

What are the principal parts of a sentence ? 

What may the other parts of a sentence be ? 

What may be attributed to the subject ? — In what ways ? 

What is required of the pupil in the Fifth Praxis ? 

LESSON XXVI. — ADVERBS AND CO?*JCNfiTl(?«r3» 

What is an Adverb? — What is the example ? 
To what classes may adverbs be reduced ? 



CHAP. XIII. J ETYMOLOGY.— WRITING.— EXERCISES. 119 

Which are adverbs of time? — of place? — of degree? — of manner? 

What are conjunctive adverbs ? 

Have adverbs any modifications ? 

Compare well, badly or ill, little, much, far &\\d. forth. 

What is a Conjunction ? — How are conjunctions divided ? 

What is a copulative conjunction ? — a disjunctive conjunction ? — a corresponsivi 

conjunction ? 
What are the copulative conjunctions ? — the disjunctive ? — the corresponsive ? 

LESSON XXVTI. — FBEPOSITION9 AND INTERJECTIONS. 

What is a Preposition ? — How are the prepositions arranged? 

What are the prepositions beginning with a? — with b? — with c? — with dt 
—with e?— with ft— with %?— with m?— with nf— with ot— with p?-^ 
with r? — with s? — with tt — with u? — with wt 

What is an Interjection ? — How are the interjections arranged ? 

What are the interjections of joy ? — of sorrow ? — of wonder? — of wishing or 
earnestness? — of praise ? — of surprise? — of pain or fear? — of contempt?— 
of aversion? — of expulsion? — of calling aloud ? — of exultation? — of laugh- 
ter? — of salutation? — of calling to attention? — of calling to silence ? — of 
surprise ?— of languor ?— of stopping ?— of parting ? — of knowing or detect- 
ing ? — of interrogating ? 

LESSON XXVIII. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

What is a compound subject or pre dicate ? — What is a phrase ? 

How may a phrase be used ?— What is a substantive phrase ? 

What is an independent phrase ? — the principal part of a phrase 1 

What is a simple phrase? — What is a complex phrase ? 

What is a compound phrase ? 

What is required of the pupil in the Sixth Praxis ? 



CHAPTEK XIII.— FOR WRITING. 

EXERCISES IN ETYMOLOGY. 

%W [When the pupil has become familiar with the different parts of speech, and 
their classes and modifications, and has been sufficiently exercised in etymological 
parsing, he should write out the following exercises.] 

EXERCISE I.— ARTICLES. 

1. Prefix the definite article to the following nouns : path, 
paths ; loss, losses ; name, names ; page, pages ; want, wants ; 
doubt, doubts ; votary, votaries. 

2. Prefix the indefinite article to the following nouns : age, 
error, idea, omen, urn, arch, bird, cage, dream, empire, farm, 
grain, horse, idol, jay, king, lady, man, novice, opinion, pony, 
quail, raven, sample trade, uncle, vessel, window, youth, zone, 
whirlwind, union, onion, unit, eagle, house, honour, hour, her- 
ald, habitation, hospital, harper, harpoon, ewer, eye, humour. 

3. Insert the definite article rightly in the following phrases : 
George second — fair appearance — part first — reasons most ob- 
vious — good man — wide circle — man of honour — man of world 
— old books — common people — same person — smaller piece— 
rich and poor — first and last — all time — great excess — nine 



120 INSTITUTES OP ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II, 

muses — how rich reward — so small number — all ancient wri- 
ters — in nature of things — much better course. 

4. Insert the indefinite article rightly in each of the follow- 
ing phrases : new name — very quick motion — other sheep — 
such power — what instance— great weight — such worthy cause 
— too great difference — high honour— humble station — univer- 
sal law — what strange event — so deep interest— as firm hope 
■ — so great wit — humorous story — such person — few dollars — • 
little reflection. 

EXERCISE II.— NOUNS. 

1. Write the plural of the following nouns : town, country, 
case, pin, needle, harp, pen, sex, rush, arch, marsh, monarch, 
blemish, distich, princess, gas, bias, stigma, wo, grotto, folio, 
punctilio, ally, duty, toy, money, entry, valley, volley, half, 
dwarf, strife, knife, roof, muff, staff, chief, sheaf, mouse, penny, 
ox, foot, erratum, axis, thesis, criterion, bolus, rebus, son-in- 
law, pailful, man-servant. 

2. Write the feminines corresponding to the following 
nouns: earl, friar, stag, lord, duke, marquis, hero, executor, 
nephew, heir, actor, enchanter, hunter, prince, traitor, lion, 
arbiter, tutor, - songster, abbot, master, uncle, widower, son, 
landgrave. 

3. Write the possessive case singular of the following nouns: 
table, leaf, boy, torch, park, porch, portico, lynx, calf* sheep, 
wolf, echo, folly, cavern, father-in-law, court-martial. 

4. Write the possessive case, plural, of the following nouns : 
priest, tutor, scholar, mountain, city, courtier, judge, citizen, 
woman, servant, writer, mother. 

5. Write the possessive case, both singular and plural, of 
the following nouns : body, fancy, lady, attorney, negro, nun- 
cio, life, brother, deer, child, wife, goose, beau, envoy, distaff 
colloquy, hero, thief, wretch. 

EXERCISE III.— ADJECTIVES. 

1. Annex a suitable noun to each of the following adjectives, 
without repeating any word : good, great, tall, wise, strong, 
dark, dangerous, dismal, drowsy, twenty, true, difficult, pale, 
livid, ripe, delicious, stormy, rainy, convenient, heavy. Thus 
— -good pens, &c. 

2. Prefix a suitable adjective to each of the following nouns, 
without repeating any word : man, son, merchant, work, fence, 
fear, poverty, picture, prince, delay, suspense, devices, follies, 
actions. Thus — wise man, &c. 

3. Compare the following adjectives : black, bright, short, 



CHAP. XIII.] ETYMOLOGY.— WRITING.— EXERCISES. 121 

white, old, high, wet, big, few, lovely, dry, fat, good, bad, 
little, much, many, far. 

4. Express the degrees of the following qualities, by the 
comparative adverbs of increase : delightful, comfortable, agree- 
able, pleasant, fortunate, valuable, wretched, vivid, timid, 
poignant, excellent. 

5. Express the degrees of the following qualities by the 
comparative adverbs of diminution ; objectionable, formidable, 
forcible, comely, pleasing, obvious, censurable, prudent. 

EXERCISE IV.— PRONOUNS. 

1. Write the nominative plural of the following pronouns : 
I, thou, he, she. it, who, which, what, that. 

2. Write the declension of the following pronouns : myself, 
thyself, himself, herself, itself, whosoever. 

3. Write the following words in their customary form : 
her's, it's, our's, your's, their's, who's, mcself, hisself, their- 
selves. 

4* Write the objective singular of all the simple pronouns. 
5. Write the objective plural of all the simple pronouns. 

EXERCISE V.— VERBS. 

1. Write the four principal parts of each of the following 
verbs : slip, thrill, caress, force, release, crop, try, die, obey, 
delay, destroy, deny, buy, come, do, feed, lie, say, huzza. 

2. Write the following preterits in their appropriate form : 
exprest, stript, lispt, dropt, jumpt, prest, topt, whipt, soakt, 
propt, fixt, stopt, pluckt, crost, stept, distrest, gusht, confest, 
snapt, brusht, shipt, kist, discust, lackt. 

3. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, pres« 
ent tense, second person singular : move, strive, please, reach, 
confess, fix, deny, survive, know, go, outdo, close, lose, pursue. 

4. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, pres* 
ent tense, third person singular: leave, seem, search, impeach, 
fear, redress, comply, bestow, do, woo, sue, view, allure, rely, 
beset, release, be, bias. 

5. Write the following verbs in the subjunctive mood, pres* 
ent tense, in the three persons singular : serve, turn, turn, 
learn, find, wish, throw, dream, possess, detest, disarm, allow, 
pretend. 

EXERCISE VI.— VERBS. 

1. Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active 
Verb amuse, conjugated affirmatively. 

a 



122 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART II. 

2. Write a synopsis of the second person singular of the 
neuter verb sit, conjugated affirmatively in the solemn style. 

3. Write a synopsis of the third person singular of the active 
verb speak, conjugated affirmatively in the compound form. 

4. Write a synopsis of the first person plural of the passive 
verb be reduced, conjugated affirmatively. 

5. Write a synopsis of the second person plural of the active 
verb lose, conjugated negatively. 

6. Write a synopsis of the third person plural of the neuter 
verb stand, conjugated interrogatively. 

7. Write a synopsis of the first person singular of the active 
verb derive, conjugated interrogatively and negatively. 

EXERCISE VII.— PARTICIPLES. 

1. Write the simple imperfect participles of the following 
verbs : belong, provoke, degrade, impress, fly, do, survey, vie, 
coo, let, hit, put, defer, differ, remember. 

2. Write the perfect participles of the following verbs: 
turn, burn, learn, deem, crowd, choose, draw, hear, lend, sweep, 
tear, thrust, steal, write, delay, imply, exist. 

3. Write the pluperfect or preperfect participles of the 
following verbs : depend, dare, deny, value, forsake, bear, set, 
sit, lay, mix, speak, sleep, allot. 

4. Write the following participles in their appropriate form : 
dipt, deckt, markt, equipt, ingulft, embarrast, astonisht, tost, 
embost, absorpt, attackt, gasht, soakt, hackt, blest, curst. 

5. Write the regular participles which are now generally 
preferred to the following irregular ones : clad, graven, hoven, 
hewn, knelt, leant, lit, mown, quit, riven, sawn, sodden, shaven, 
shorn, sown, strown, swollen, thriven, wrought. 

6. Write the irregular participles which are, or may be, pre- 
ferred to the following regular ones : bended, builded, eatched, 
creeped, dealed, digged, dreamed, dwelled, gilded, girded, 
hanged, knitted, laded, meaned, reaved, shined, slitted, splitted, 
stringed, stnved, weeped, wonted, wringed. \ 

EXERCISE VIIL— ADVERBS, &c. 

1. Compare the following adverbs : soon, often, well, badly 
or ill, little, much, far, forth. 

2. Prefix the comparative adverbs of increase to each of the 
following adverbs : purely, fairly, sweetly, earnestly, patiently, 
completely, fortunately, profitably. 

3. Prefix the comparative adverbs of diminution to the fol- 
lowing adverbs ; secretly, slily, liberally, favourably, power- 
fully. 



CHAP. XIII.] ETYMOLOGY.— WRITING.— EXERCISES. 128 

4. Insert suitable conjunctions in place of the following 
dashes : Love — fidelity are inseparable. Beware of parties — ■ 
factions. Do well — boast not. Improve time — it flies. There 
would be few paupers — no time were lost. Be not proud — ■ 
thou art human. I saw — it was necessary. Honesty is better 
— policy. Neither he — I can do it. It must be done — to day 
— to morrow. Take care — thou fall. Though I should boast 
— am I nothing. 

5. Insert suitable prepositions in the place of the following 
dashes: Plead — the dumb. Qualify thyself — action — study. 
Think often — the worth — time. Live — peace — all men. Keep' 
— compass. Jest not — serious subjects. Take no part — slan- 
der. Guilt starts — its own shadow. Grudge not — giving. 
Go not — sleep — malice. Debate not — temptation. Depend 
not — the stores — others. Contend not — trifles. Many fall — 
grasping — things — their reach. Be deaf — detraction. 

6. Correct the following sentences, and adapt the interjec- 
tions to the emotions expressed by the other words : Aha ! 
aha ! I am undone. Hey ! io ! I am tired. Ho ! be still. 
Avaunt ! this way. Ah ! what nonsense. Heigh-ho ! I am 
delighted. Hist ! it is contemptible. Oh ! for that symp» 
thetic glow ! Ah I what withering phantoms glare ! 



124 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IIL 



PART III. 

SYNTAX. 

Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government^ 
and arrangement, of words in sentences. 

The relation of words, is their dependence, or con- 
nexion, according to the sense. 

The agreement of words, is their similarity in person, 
number, gender, case, mood, tense, or form. 

The government of words, is that power which one 
word has over an other, to cause it to assume some par- 
ticular modification. 

The arrangement of words, is their collocation, or rel- 
ative position, in a sentence. 

[Obs. 1. — Syntax, as the name indicates, has reference only to those prin- 
ciples and rules which serve to guide us in the construction of sentences. 
The principles of analysis lie much deeper in the subject of grammar — 
are much more fundamental, than the technical considerations which form 
the groundwork of syntactical rules. 

Sentential analysis is founded upon the general laws of language ; and 
therefore, its principles are as applicable to one language as another ; syn- 
tactical rules, on the other hand, can, as a general thing, have reference only 
to the particular language the use of whicu they are designed to direct. 

Analysis is generally introduced in connection only with syntax, as if it 
had a special and exclusive reference to that department of grammar; 
whereas it deals with principles that underlie almost all grammatical dis- 
tinctions, and is quite as necessary to the proper elucidation of etymological 
relations as those which especially belong to syntax. The classification and 
definition of the different kinds of sentences, and their elements have there- 
fore been removed from this part of the work (where they were originally 
placed by the author), and introduced progressively at intervals, in connec- 
tion with the exercises of analysis and parsing, designed to illustrate, and 
practice the pupil in, each consecutive part of the subject studied. The defi- 
nition of a sentence immediately follows that of parsing ; because up to that 
point, the term had been twice used ; once, in the definition of a conjunction, 
and once, in that of parsing ; a fact which, of itself, demonstrates the elemen- 
tary character of this definition, and to what extent even etymological dis- 
tinctions depend upon it. 

Obs. 2.— Syntactical rules are limited to the construction of sentences, as 
separate portions of discourse ; the consideration of those principles and 
rules which regulate the combination of sentences into paragraphs, and these 
again into particular kinds of composition, is not comprised in the subject 
of grammar, but falls within the province of its kindred arts, rhetoric and 
logic. 

Obs. 3.— Rules 1, 2, 4, 9, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 22,— nearly one half 
of the twenty-six Rules of Syntax laid down in this work, are rather a 
repetition of the definitions comprehended in etymology, than separate rules 
necessary to guide us in the construction of sentences. For example, we need 



CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — RULES. 125 

no rule to inform lis that " the subject of a finite verb is in the nominative 
case," after learning that the " nominative case is that form or state of a 
noun or pronoun which denotes the subject of a finite verb." The case is 
different, however, when we have two or more connected subjects belonging 
to the same verb ; for here etymology gives us no explicit direction, although 
it still affords the guiding principle. 

The rules, above enumerated, although without any directive utility, form, 
however, the basis for many subordinate rules, contained in the observations 
and notes, which should be attentively studied by the learner, and the exer- 
cises upon them be carefully performed. — Editor.] 

Obs. 4. — Words that are omitted by ellipsis, and that are necessarily un- 
derstood in order to complete the construction, must be supplied in analysis 
and parsing. 



CHAPTEE I.— THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 
1. RULES OF RELATION AND AGREEMENT, 

RULE I. — ARTICLES. 

Articles relate to the nouns which they limit. 

RULE II. — NOMINATIVES. 

A Noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a finite 
verb, must be in the nominative case. 

RULE III.— APPOSITION. 

A Noun or a personal Pronoun used to explain a pre- 
ceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the 
same case. 

RULE IV. — ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns. 

RULE V. — PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the 
noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, 
and gender. 

RULE VI. — PRONOUNS. 

When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying 
the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with it in 
the plural number. 

RULE VII, — PRONOUNS. 

When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents con* 
ii* 



126 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

nected by and, it must agree with them in the plural 
number. 

RULE VIII. — PRONOUNS. 

When a Pronoun has two or more singular antece- 
dents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in 
the singular number. 

RULE IX. — VERBS. 

A finite Yerb must agree with its subject, or nomin- 
ative, in person and number. 

RULE X. — VERBS. 

When the nominative is a collective noun conveying 
the idea of plurality, the Verb must agree with it in the 
plural number. 

RULE XL — VERBS. 

When a Yerb has two or more nominatives connected 
by and, it must agree with them in the plural number. 

RULE XII. — VERBS. 

When a Yerb has two or more singular nominatives 
connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the 
singular number. 

RULE XIII. — VERBS. 

When Yerbs are connected by a conjunction, they 
must either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have 
separate nominatives expressed. 

RULE XIV. — PARTICIPLES. 

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are 
governed by prepositions. 

RULE XV. — ADVERBS. 

Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or 
Other adverbs. 

RULE XVI. — CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions connect either words or sentences. 

RULE XVII. — PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions show the relations of things. 



CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — RULES. 127 

RULE XVIII. — INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections have no dependent construction. 
2. RULES OF GOVERNMENT* 

* RULE XIX. — POSSESSIVES. 

A nonn or a pronoun in the Possessive case, is gov- 
erned by the name of the thing possessed. 

RULE XX. — OBJECTIVES. 

Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and pre- 
perfect participles, govern the Objective case. 

RULE XXI. — SAME CASES. 

Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and 
their participles, take the same case after as before them, 
when both words refer to the same thing. 

RULE XXII. — OBJECTIVES. 

Prepositions govern the Objective case. 

RULE XXIII. — INFINITIVES. 

The preposition to governs the Infinitive mood, and 
commonly connects it to a finite verb. 

RULE XXIV. — INFINITIVES. 

The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, 
see, and their participles, usually take the Infinitive after 
them, without the preposition TO. 

RULE XXV. — NOM. ABSOLUTE. 

A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the Nomin- 
ative, when its case depends on no other word. 

RULE XXVI. — SUBJUNCTIVES. 

A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in 
the Subjunctive, present; and a mere supposition, with 
indefinite time, by a verb in the Subjunctive, imperfect: 
but a conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires 
the Indicative mood. 

* The Arrangement of words is treated of, in the Observations under the Eules of 
Syntax, in Chapters 2d and 3d. 



128 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

PRAXIS VII. — SYNTACTICAL. 

In the Seventh Praxis, it is required of the pupil—to analyze 
the sentence according to the method indicated under each 
example ; to distinguish the parts of speech and their classes ; 
to mention their modifications in order ; to point out their 
relation, agreement, or government y and to apply the Rule 
of Syntax. Thus : — 

EXAMPLE ANALYZED AND PARSED. 

"To be continually subject to the breatli of slander, will 
tarnish the purest reputation." 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The subject is the complex infinitive phrase, to be continually subject to the 
breath of slander j the predicate is will tarnish; the object is reputa- 
tion. 

The principal part of the phrase is to he, and its adjuncts are continually, 
ana the- indefinite attribute, subject, which is modified by the complex 
adverbial phrase, to the breath of slander ; the principal part of this 
phrase is breath, which is modified by the, and the simple adjective 
phrase, of slander. 

The predicate of the sentence has no adjuncts ; the adjuncts of the cbject 
are the and purest. 
Pausing. — To be is an irregular neuter verb, from he, was, being, been • found 
in the infinitive mood and present tense, and is, with the phrase of 
which it is the principal part, the subject of the verb will tarnish; ac- 
cording to Note 11, under Rule IX., which says, " The infinitive mood, 
a phrase, or a sentence, is sometimes the subject to a verb." 

Continually is an adverb of time, and relates to the verb to be ; according 
to Rule XV., which says, etc. 

Subject is a common adjective, of the positive degree, compared only by 
means of the adverbs, more and most, and less and least ; it is taken 
abstractly with the infinitive to be ; according to Exception 2d, under 
Rule IV., which says, " With an infintive or a participle denoting 
being or action in the abstract, an adjective is sometimes also taken 
abstractly ." 

To is a preposition ; and shows the relation between subject and breath • 
according to Rale XVII., which says, etc. 

The is the definite article, and relates to breath; according to Rule I., which 
says, etc. 

Breath is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, and objective case ; and is governed by to ; according to Rule 
XXII., which says, etc. 

Will tarnish is a regular active-transitive verb, from tarnish, tarnished, 
tarnishing, tarnished ; found in the indicative mood, first-future tense, 
third person, and singular number ; and agrees with its subject, the 
infinitive phrase to be, etc. ; according to Note 11, under Rule IX., 
which says, "The infinitive mood, a phrase, or a sentence, is some- 
times the subject of a verb ; a subject of this kind, however composed, 
if it is taken as one whole, requires a verb in the third person sin- 
gular." 

Purest is a common adjective of the superlative degree, compared, pure, 
purer, purest; it relates to reputation ; according to Rule IV., which 
says, etc. ' 



CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PAUSING. 129 

deputation is a common noun, of the. third person, singular number, neu* 
ter gender, and objective case ; and is governed by will tarnish ; ac- 
cording to Eule XX., which says, etc. 



EXERCISE I.— THE SUBJECT PHRASE. 

To train* citizens is not the work of a day. 

To be happy without the approval of conscience, is impos- 
sible. 

To have remained calm under such provocation, was a proof 
of remarkable self-control. 

To be at once a rake and glory in the character, discovers a 
bad disposition and a bad heart. 

To meet danger boldly is better than to wait for it. 

To be satisfied with the acquittal of one's own conscience, is 
the mark of a great mind. 

To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect 
of character. 

To spring up from bed at the first moment of waking, is 
easy enough for people habituated to it. 

To laugh were want of goodness and of grace, 
And to be grave exceeds all power of face. 

EXERCISE II.— THE OBJECT PHRASE. 

EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 

" Can a youth who refuses to yield obedience to his parents, 
expect to become a good or a wise man ?" 

Analysis. — This is a complex interrogative sentence. 

The principal clause is, Can a youth expect to become a good or wise man? 
The dependent clause is, who refuses to yield obedience to his parents. 
The connective is wlxo. 

The subject of the principal clause is youth ; the predicate is expect ; the 
object is the infinitive phrase, to become a good or a wise man. 

The adjuncts of the subject are a and the dependent clause ; the predi- 
cate has no adjuncts ; the principal part of the phrase is to become, and 
its adjunct is the attribute man, which refers to the subject youth, and 
is modified by the adjuncts a, good, and a, wise, connected by or. ' 

* The various usages of the infinitive mood, exhibited in these and the following 
classified phrases, might dictate some modification of Eule XXIII.. which asserts 
that the infinitive mood is, in all cases, governed by the preposition to. The forms 
of expression, and their analysis, here given, show that this statement, if correct, ex- 
plains scarcely at all the nature, and mode of use, of this form of the verb. We per- 
ceive that, with or without adjuncts, it may be used as the subject or the object of a 
verb, or as a substantive or adjective attribute, and that it maybe independent. 
Moreover, when it introduces an adjective or adverbial phrase, it appears to be used 
as an adjective or adverb, although it may be considered to be the object of to (if a 
preposition), or of some preposition understood. In this case only, does Rule XXIII. 
appear to have any application whatever. A more general rule, and one more in 
consonance with the nature of this form of speech, would be, "The infinitive mood 
has the construction of a noun or an adjective." 



130 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GKAMMAR. [PART III. 

The subject of the dependent clause is who ; the predicate is refuses ; tha 
object is the complex infinitive phrase, to yield obedience to his parents. 
The subject and the predicate have no adjuncts ; the principal part of 
the phrase is to yield, its adjunct is the object, obedience, which is mod- 
ified by the simple adjective phrase, to his parents ; the principal 
part of this phrase is parents, and its adjunct is his. 

|J5iP" [Man is in the nominative case, after become, agreeing with youth ; ac- 
cording to Rule XXI.] 

If you desire to be free from sin, avoid temptation. 

By the faults of others, wise men learn how to correct their 
own. 

In reasoning, avoid blending arguments confusedly together 
that are of a separate nature. 

He who refuses to learn how to avoid evil, may properly be 
deemed guilty of it. 

He did not oppose his son's going to sea, because he desired 
to remove him from the evil influence of bad company. 

Never expect to be able to govern others, unless you have 
learned how to govern yourself. 

He who loves to survey the works of nature, can anticipate, 
wherever he may be, finding sources of the purest enjoyment. 

He who attempts to please every body, will soon become 
an object of general indifference or contempt. 

None but the virtuous dare hope in bad circumstances. 

If ever any author deserved to be called an original, it was 
Shakespeare. 

EXERCISE III.— THE ATTRIBUTE PHRASE. 

EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 

'* The predominant passion of Franklin seems to have been 
the love of the useful." 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. 
The subject is passion ; the predicate is seems ; the attribute is the infini- 
tive phrase, to have been the love of the useful. 
The adjuncts of the subject are the, predominant, and the simple adjective 
phrase, of Franklin ; the predicate has no adjuncts ; the principal part 
of the attribute phrase is to have been, and its adjunct is the attribute 
love, which refers to the subject passion, and is modified by the % and 
the simple adjective phrase, of the useful. 
[To have been, is used as an adjective, and relates to passion.] 



The fire of our minds is immortal, and not to be quenched. 

Universal benevolence and patriotic zeal appear to have been 
the motives of all his actions. 

Children should be permitted to be children, and not de- 
prived of amusements proper for their age. 

Was he not to live the best part of his life over again, and 
once more be all that he ever had been ? 



CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PAUSING. 131 

Criminals are observed to grow more anxious as their trial 
approaches. 

Knowledge is not to be received inertly like the influences of 
the atmosphere, by a mere residence at the place of instruc- 
tion. 

The great purpose of poetry is to carry the mind above and 
beyond the beaten, dusty, weary walks of ordinary life ; to lift 
it into a purer element ; and to breathe into it more profound 
and generous emotions. 

He seems to have made an injudicious choice, though he is 
esteemed a sensible man. 

Integrity is of the greatest importance in every situation of 
life. 

To be useful in some degree, is within the means of every 
one. 

To discover the true nature of comets, has hitherto proved 
beyond the power of science. 

His conduct was, under the circumstances, in very bad taste. 

The merchant was to have sailed for Europe last week. 



EXERCISE IV.— THE ADJECTIVE PHRASE. 



EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 

" Leaning my head upon my hand, I began to figure to my- 
self the miseries of confinement." 

Analysis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The subject is /; the predicate is began ; the object is trie complex infin- 
itive phrase, to figure to myself the miseries of confinement. The prin- 
cipal part of the phrase is to figure, the adjuncts of which are the 
simple adverbial phrase, to myself and the object miseries, which is 
modified by the and the simple adjective phrase, of confinement. 

The adjunct of the subject is the complex adjective phrase leaning my head 
upon my hand, the principal part of which is leaning, and its adjuncts, 
the object head modified by my, and the simple adverbial phrase, 
upon my hand, the principal part of which is hand, and its ad- 
junct, my. 

Life bears us on like the stream of a mighty river. 

Augustus had np lawful authority to make a change in the 
Roman constitution. 

A habit of sincerity in acknowledging faults, is a guard 
against committing them. 

The atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall attempt 
neither to palliate nor deny. 

Envy, surrounded on all sides by the brightness of another's 
prosperity, like the scorpion, confined within the circle of fire, 
stings itself to death. 



132 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

The requisites for a first-rate, actor demand a combination of 
talents and accomplishments, not easily to be found. 

The conflicts of the world were not to take place altogether* 
on the tented field; but ideas, leaping from the world's 
awakened intellect, and burning all over with indestructible 
life, were to be marshalled against principalities and powers. 



EXERCISE V.— THE ADVERBIAL PHRASE. 

EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 

"We live in the past by a knowledge of its history, and in 
the future by hope and anticipation." 

Analysis. — This is a compound declarative sentence, abbreviated in form, 
and consisting of the two coordinate clauses, We live in the past by a 
knowledge of its history, and {we live) in the future by hope and antici- 
pation, connected by and. 
The subject of either clause is we ; and the predicate is live. Neither of 
the subjects is modified. The adjuncts of the first predicate are the 
simple adverbial phrase, in the past, and the complex adverbial phrase, 
by a knowledge qf its history ; the principal part is knowledge, and its 
adjuncts are a 'and the simpie adjective phrase, of its history. [The 
adjuncts of the second predicate are of the same character, and may be 
analyzed in the same manner ._, 

At that hour, O how vain was all sublunary happiness ! 

Abstain from injuring others, if you wish to be in safety. 

The public are often deceived by false appearances and ex- 
travagant pretensions. 

Day and night yield us contrary blessings ; and, at the same 
time, assist each other, by giving fresh lustre to the delights 
of both. 

Man's happiness or misery is, in a great measure, put into 
his own hands. 

Has not sloth, or pride, or ill temper, or sinful passion, mis- 
led you from the path of sound and wise conduct \ 

Man was created to search for truth, to love the beautiful, to 
desire the good, and to do the best. 

Representation and taxation should alwa}^ go hand in hand. 

The statement which he made at first, he reiterated, again 
and again, without the least variation. 

Jacob loved all his sons, but he loved Joseph the best. 

There is very often more happiness in the cottage of the 
peasant than in the palace of the king. 

* A Uogether is here an adverb relating to the adverbial phrase, on the tented field. 
Bee Obs. 2, page 112. 



CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 133 



EXERCISE VI.— THE EXPLANATORY PHRASE. 



EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 

" It is useless to expatiate upon the beauties of nature to ono 
who is blind." 

Analysis. — This a complex declarative sentence. 

The principal clause is, It is useless to expatiate upon the beauties of nature 
to one, and the dependent clause is, toho is blind. The connective is 
who. 

The subject of the principal clause is it • the predicate is is ; and the 
attribute is useless. 

The adjunct of the subject is the complex explanatory phrase, to expatiate 
upon the beauties of nature to one. The principal part of the phrase is 
to expatiate, the adjuncts of which are the complex adverbial phrase 
upon the beauties of nature, and the simple adverbial phrase to one. The 
principal part of the former is beauties, and its adjuncts are the and 
th. simple adjective phrase of native ; the principal part of the latter 
is one, and its adjunct is the dependent adjective clause who is blind. 

The subject of the dependent clause is who ; the predicate, is ; and the 
attribute, blind; each without adjuncts. 

It is always profitable to know our own faults and infirmities. 

It is the characteristic of a pedant to make an idle display 
of his learning'. 

If what I say be not true, it is easy to convict me of false- 
hood. 

It is very often impossible to estimate the extent of injury 
which a careless word will produce. 

How happy had it been for him to have died in that sick- 
ness, when all Italy was putting up vows and prayers for his 
safety ! 

It is certainly in the power of a sensible and well-educated 
mother to inspire such tastes and propensities in her son as 
shall nearly decide the destiny of the future man. 

It is impossible to read a page in Plato, Tully, or any of the 
ether eminent moralists of antiquity, without being a greater 
and better man for it. 

If we would improve our minds by conversation, it is a great 
happiness to be acquainted with persons wiser than ourselves. 

If we were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to 
retire from the contest. 

It is a miserable state of mind to have few things to desire, 
and many things to fear. 

Death ! Great proprietor of all I 'tis thine 
To tread out empire, and to quench the stars. 

Through worlds unnumber'd though the God be known, 
'Tis ours to trace him only in our own. 
12 



134 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 



EXERCISE VII.— THE INDEPENDENT PHRASE. 

EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 

w This proposition being admitted, I now state my argument." 

Analysis.— This is a simple declarative sentence. 
The subject is I; the predicate is state ; the object is argument. 
The subject has no adjuncts ; the adjunct of the predicate is now ; th* 

adjunct of the object is my. 
This proposition being admitted is an independent phrase : the principal 
part is proposition, and its adjuncts are this and being admitted. 

EXAMPLE II. 

*' One day, I was guilty of an action which, to say the least, 
was in very bad taste." 

Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence. 

The principal clause is, One day I was guilty of an action; and the depend- 
ent clause is, which, to say the least, teas in very bad taste. The con- 
nective is which. 

The subject of the principal clause is /; the predicate is was ; and the 
attribute is guilty. 

The subject has no adjuncts ; the adjunct of the predicate is the adverbial 
phrase (prepositional in form), (on) one day ; the adjunct of the at- 
tribute is the adverbial phrase of an action. Of the latter phrase 
action is the principal part, and its adjuncts are an and the dependent 
clause. 

The subject of the dependent clause is which ; the predicate is was ; and 
the attribute, the adjective phrase in very bad taste. 

Neither has any adjuncts ; the principal part of the attribute phrase is 
taste ; bad being its primary, and very its secondary adjunct. 

To say the least is an independent phrase of the infinitive form. The prin- 
cipal part is to say, and its adjunct, the object least, modified by the. 

They being absent, we cannot come to a determination. 

There being much obscurity in the case, he refuses to decide 
upon it. 

To be plain with you, your conduct is very much to be 
censured. 

Fathers ! Senators of Rome ! the arbiters of nations ! to you 
I fly for refuge. 

The baptism of John ; was it from heaven, or of men ? 

Generally speaking, the life of all truly great men has been 
a life of intense and incessant labor. 

To give one instance more, and then I will have done with, 
this rambling discourse. — Hazlitt. 

The great utility of knowledge and religion being thus appa- 
rent, it is highly incumbent upon us to pay a studious attention 
to them in our youth. 

A shoe coming loose from the fore-foot of the thill-horse, at 
the beginning of the ascent of Mount Taurina, the postillion 



CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 135 

dismounted, twisted the shoe off, and put it in his pocket. — 

Sterne. 

Want, and incurable disease, (fell pair !) 
On hopeless multitudes remorseless seize 
At once ; and make a refuge of the grave. 

Soldier, rest ! thy warfare o'er, 

Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking : 

Dream of battle-fields no more, 
Days of danger, nights of waking. 



EXERCISE Yin.- THE SUBJECT CLAUSE. 



EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 

* That it is our duty to obey the laws of the country in 
which we live, does not admit of question." 

Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence. 
The subject is the dependent clause, That it is our duty to obey the laws of 
the country in which we live ; the predicate is does admit. That is the 
connective. 
The adjuncts of the predicate are not and the phrase of question. 
The subject of the dependent clause is it; the predicate is is ; and the at- 
tribute is duty. 
The adjunct of the subject is the complex explanatory phrase, to obey the 
laws of the country in which we live ; the adjunct of the attribute is our. 
The principal part of the explanatory phrase is to obey, which is modified 
by the object laws, the adjuncts of which are the and the complex 
phrase, of the country in which we live. The principal part of this 
phrase is country, and its adjuncts are the and the Simple adjective 
clause, in which ive live The subject of the clause is we • the predicate 
is live, which is modified by the simple adverbial phrase in which. 
Obs. — It will be perceived from the example given in this exercise, that 
« complex sentence may be analyzed by treating it as a wnole, pointing out 
the subject, predicate, etc., and aualyzing the dependent clause in its proper 
place, as one of the principal parts, or an adjunct to either ; instead of di- 
viding the sentence immediately into the principal and dependent clauses, 
explaining their connection, and then analyzing them separately, as in the 
previous exercises. The latter method is preferable for beginners, .but for 
advanced scholars should give place to the other, which is more logical, and 
easier for intricate sentences. 

That the government of our desires is essential to the enjoy- 
ment of true liberty, is a truth never to be forgotten. 

That it is glorious to die for one's country, is a sentiment 
uniformly cherished by all good men. 

At what period the poems of Homer were composed, has 
not been positively ascertained. 

Who was the author of the Letters of Phalans, has been 
the subject of very ingenious and learned discussion. 

That an author's work is the mirror of his mind, is a position 
that has led to very false conclusions. 



186 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

Why a man with so excellent an education, and surrounded 
with so many inducements to a virtuous life, should have fallen 
into habits of vice and dissipation, is inexplicable. 

That truth finally must prevail over error, and virtue be 
triumphant in a struggle with vice, are highly cherished senti- 
ments among mankind. 

How he was to extricate his army from so dangerous a posi 
tion, baffled all conjecture. 

Whether Columbus was the first discoverer of America or 
not, is a question among historians. 



EXERCISE IX.— THE OBJECT CLAUSE. 

EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 

"Children should know that it is their duty to honor their 
parents, to ask advice of them, and to observe their wishes." 

Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence. 

The subject is children,; the predicate is should know ; the object is the 
dependent clause, That it is their duty, &c. That is the connective. 

The subject of the dependent clause is it; the predicate is is ; the attri- 
bute is duty. 

The adjuncts of the subject are the explanatory phrases, to honor their pa- 
rents, to ash advice of them, and to observe their wishes. 

He knew that solicitations or remonstrances would avail 
little with the companions of his enterprise. 

Those who are skilled in the extraction and preparation of 
metals, declare that iron is everywhere to be found. 

Columbus felt that there was a continent to be discovered ; 
and he discovered it. 

The authors of the American Revolution believed that they 
were in the service of their own, and of all future generations. 

It is interesting to notice how some minds seem almost to 
create themselves, springing up under every disadvantage, 
and working their solitary but irresistible way through a thou- 
sand obstacles. 

Any man who attends to what passes within himself, may 
easily discern that the human character is a very complicated 
system. 

How can he exalt his thoughts to any thing great or noble, 
who only believes that, after a short term on this stage of ex- 
istence, he is to sink into oblivion, and to lose his consciousness 
forever ? 

See, Aspasio, how all is calculated to administer the highest 
delight to mankind. 

The majority of the assembly wisely considered that to de- 



CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 137 

cline a cessation, would be to refute all their professions of 
loyalty. 

Haply some hoary-headed swain may say, 
" Oft have we seen him at the peep of dawn, 

Brushing, with hasty steps, the dews away, 
To meet the sun upon the upland lawn." 

EXERCISE X.— THE OBJECT CLAUSE. 

INFINITIVE FORM. 

Obs. 1. — In the infinitive form of this clause, the subject and predicate 
are connected indirectly. The predicate, instead of being a finite verb, is a 
verb in the infinitive mood, and its subject is in the objective case. Thus, 
in the sentence, " He commanded the army to march," army is the subject, 
and to march, the predicate ; because it is indicated (although indirectly) 
that the act of marching is performed by the agent army, the sentence being 
equivalent to, " He commanded that the army should march." 

Obs. 2. — The infinitive clause is also sometimes used as the subject of a 
sentence, and occasionally as an explanatory adjunct ; as, u For us to learn to 
die, is the great business of life." — " It is the great business of life, for us 
to learn to die." [See Exception 2, Eule XVII. j 

EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 

"Let the child learn what is appropriate for his years." 

Analysis. — This is a complex imperative sentence. The subject is thou 
(understood) ; the predicate is let ; the object is the infinitive clause, 
the child learn, &c. 

The subject of the dependent clause is child ; the predicate is (to) learn ; 
the object is that (comprehended in the double relative what, equiva- 
lent to that tvhich.) 

The adjunct of the subject is the ; the adjunct of the object is the simple 
adjective clause which is appropriate for his years. 

The subject of this clause is which ; the predicate, is ; the attribute, ap- 
propriate, modified by the simple adverbial phrase, for his years. 

Thou think'st it folly to he wise too soon. 

In this melancholy state, he commanded messengers to recall 
his eldest son, Abouzaid, from the army. 

Graves describes the steps by which Shenstone made the 
Leasowes become what it at last was. 

Let us all, in our mourning attire, and accompanied by our 
children, go and entreat Veturia, the mother of Coriolanus, to 
intercede with her son for our common country. 

Madam Roland heard herself sentenced to death with the 
air of one who saw in her condemnation merely her title to 
immortality. 

Goldsmith said to Johnson very wittily and very justly, " If 
you were to write a fable about little fishes, doctor, you would 
make the little fishes talk like whales." 

12* 



138 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III 

The fact of Shenstone's having written the School-mistress" 
and the " Pastoral Ballad," alone entitles him to be ranked 
amongst the classical poets of English literature. 

The curiosity of the Caliph being awakened to know the 
cause of his despair, he ordered Mezrour to knock at the door, 
which being opened, they pleaded the privilege of strangers to 
enter for rest and refreshment. 

See some strange comfort every state attend, 
And pride bestow'd on all, a common friend : 
See some fit passion every age supply ; 
Hope travels through, nor quits us when we die. 
On what foundation stands the warrior's pride, 
How just his hopes, let Swedish Charles decide. 

EXERCISE X.--THE ATTRIBUTE CLAUSE. 

EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 

" The truth is, that the most elaborate and manifold apparatus 
of instruction can impart nothing of importance to the passive 
and inert mind." 

Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence. The subject is truth ; 
the predicate is is ; the attribute is the dependent clause, The most 
elaborate and manifold apparatus, &c. The connective is that. 
The subject of the dependent clause is apparatus ; the predicate is can 
impart ; the object is nothing. The adjuncts of the subject are the, 
elaborate, manifold, and of instruction ; most is an adjunct of elaborate 
and manifold; the adjunct of the predicate is the adverbial phrase 
to the passive and inert mind • the principal part of which is mind, 
and its adjuncts the, and passive and inert ; the adjunct of the object 
is the simple adjective phrase, of importance. 

The crying sin of all governments is, that they meddle inju- 
riously with human affairs, and obstruct the processes of nature 
by excessive legislation. 

One of the most useful effects of action is, that it renders 
repose agreeable. 

The only advantage which, in the voyage of life, the cau- 
tious had above the negligent, was, that they sunk later, and 
more suddenly. 

The characteristic peculiarity of the " Pilgrim's Progress" is, 
that it is the only work of its kind which possesses a strong 
human interest. 

The proper end of instruction is, not that the scholar should 
be able to repeat the thoughts of others, but that he should 
have the power to think correctly for himself. 

The physician's directions were, that the patient should 
travel to the South, that he should avoid excitement, and thai 
he should be careful in diet. 



CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PAUSING. 139 



EXERCISE XI.— THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. 

EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 

"Whoever yields to temptation, debases himself with a de« 
basement from which he can never arise." 

Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence. 

The subject is he (comprehended in the double relative whoever); tho 
predicate is debases ; the oLject is Mmself. 

The adjunct of the subject is the simple adjective clause, who yields to 
temptation; the adjunct of the predicate is the complex phrase, with a 
debasement from which he never can arise. The principal part of the 
phrase is debasement, and its adjuncts are a and the simple adjective 
clause, from which he never can arise. The subject of this clause is he; 
the predicate is can arise. The adjuncts of the predicate are never, 
and the simple adverbial phrase, from which. 

The chief misfortunes that befall us in life, can be traced to 
some vices and follies which we have committed. 

Every society has a right to prescribe for itself the terms on 
which its members shall be admitted. 

There is no foundation for the popular doctrine, that a 
state may flourish by arts and crimes. 

It is necessary to combat vigilantly that favorite idea of 
lively ignorance, that study is an enemy to originality. 

Most of the troubles which we meet with in the world, arise 
from an irritable temper, or from improper conduct. 

Neither his vote, his influence, nor his purse, was ever with- 
held from the cause in which he had engaged. 

He that has light within his own clear breast, 
May sit in the centre, and enjoy bright day ; 
But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts, 
Benighted walks under the mid-day sun. 

No flocks that range the valley, free, 

To slaughter I condemn ; 
Taught by that power that pities me, 

I learn to pity them. 



EXERCISE XII.— THE ADVERBIAL CLAUSE. 

EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 

" Education, when it works upon a noble mind, draws out to 
view many latent virtues and perfections, which, without its aid, 
would never be able to make their appearance." 

Analysis. — This is a compound declarative sentence. 
The first clause is, Education, when it ivorhs upon a noble mind, draws out 
to view many latent virtues and perfections ; and the second is, Which, 



140 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GKAMMAR. [PART III. 

without its aid, would never be able to make their appearance. Tho 
connective is which. 

The first is a complex member ; the subject is education; the predicate is 
draws ; the objects are virtues and. perfections. 

The subject has no adjuncts; the adjuncts of the predicate are the ad- 
verbial clause, when it works upon a nolle mind, out, and the simple 
adverbial phrase, to view ; the adjuncts of the objects are many audi 
latent. 

The subject of the dependent clause is it , the predicate is works. Tho 
adjuncts of the predicate are when, and the adverbial phrase, upon a 
noble mind. The connective is when. 

The subject of the second clause is which ; the predicate is would be ; the 
attribute is able. 

The subject has no adjuncts ; the adjuncts of the predicate are the phrase, 
without its aid, and never ; the adjunct of the attribute is the simple 
adverbial phrase, to make their appearance, of which to make is the 
principal part, and its adjunct, the object appearance, modified by their. 

"When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affects us, 
the sincerity of friendship is proved. 

When the Creator had finished his labor on our planet, his 
last and noblest work being man, he conferred on him a part- 
nership in his labors. 

Loose conversation operates on the soul, as poison does on 
the body. 

When Education had proceeded, in this manner, to the part 
of the mountain where the declivity began to grow craggy, she 
resigned her charge to two powers of superior aspect. 

While I was musing o.i this miserable scene, my protector 
called out to me, " Remember, Theodore, and be wise, and let 
not Habit prevail against thee." 

While this thought passed over my mind, I lost sight of the 
remotest star, and the last glimmering of light was quenched in 
utter darkness. The agonies of despair every moment in- 
creased, as every moment augmented my distance from the 
last habitable world. I reflected with intolerable anguish, that, 
when ten thousand thousand years had carried me beyond the 
reach of all but that Power who fills infinitude, I should still look 
forward into an immense abyss of darkness, through which I 
should still drive without succor and without society, farther 
and farther still, forever and forever. 

Ages elapsed ere Homer's lamp appeared, 
And ages ere the Mantuan swan was heard. 
To carry nature lengths unknown before, 
To give a Milton birth, asked ages more. 

EXERCISE XIII.— THE EXPLANATORY CLAUSE. 

EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 

" Why is it that to man have been given passions which ha 
cannot tame, and which sink him below the brute ?" 



CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 141 

Analysis.— This is a complex interrogative sentence. 
The subject is it; the predicate is is; the adjunct of the subject is tha 
complex explanatory clause, to man have been given passions which h& 
cannot tame, and ivhich sink him below the brute ; the connective ia 
that ; the adjunct of the predicate is why. 
The subject of tue explanatory clause is passions ; the predicate is have 
been given. The adjuncts of the subject are the simple adjective 
clauses, which he cannot tame, and which sink Mm below the brute* 
[Each to be analyzed as in previous exercises.] 

It was the fate of Dr. Bentley, that every work, executed or 
projected by him, should be assailed. 

It is surprising in what countless swarms the bees have over- 
spread the far West, within but a moderate number of years. 

To tell you the why and the wherefore would take too long ; 
suffice it to say, that they hate us with a deadly hatred. 

Seeing these, I at length comprehended the meaning of those 
terrible words, c ' Must we kill them both ?" 

It might be expected, that humanity itself would prevent 
them from breaking into the last retreat of the unfortunate. 

It is an exquisite and beautiful thing in our nature, that 
when the heart is touched and softened by some tranquil hap- 
piness or affectionate feeling, the memory of the dead comes 
over it most powerfully and irresistibly. 

Interesting it is to observe how certainly all deep feelings 
agree in this, that they seek for solitude, and are nursed by 
solitude. 

Is it because foreigners are in a condition to set our malice 
at defiance, that we are willing to contract engagements of 
friendship 1 

See ! and confess, one comfort still must rise ; 
'Tis this, though man's a fool, yet God is wise. 

Better for us, perhaps, it might appear, 
Were there all harmony, all virtue here ; 
That never air nor ocean felt the wind, 
That never passion discompos'd the mind. 



EXERCISE XIV.— THE PARENTHETICAL CLAUSE. 

EXAMPLE ANALYZED. 

"The virtuous man, it has been beautifully said, proceeds 
Without constraint in the path of his duty." 

Analysis.— This is a compound declarative sentence ; composed of the 

simple clause, The virtuous man proceeds witho-ut constraint in the path 

of 'his duty r , and the parenthetical clause, It has been beautifully said, 

[Let the pupil analyze each clause as in the preceding exercises.] 

Obs. — Sentences of this form may often be analyzed by considering the 

parenthetical clause, the principal one, and the rest of the sentence depend- 



142 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART 111. 

ent upon it. The mode of analysis, indicated in the example, is, however, 
preferable ; as, although the parenthetical clause is united in construction 
with the other part of the sentence, it is not necessary to complete the sense. 

How dangerous soever idleness may be, are there not plea- 
sures, it may be said, which attend it ? 

"I leave my second son, Andrew," said the expiring miser, 
"my whole estate ; and desire him to be frugal." 

" Go forth," it had been said to Elijah, " and stand upon the 
mount before the Lord." 

" I think, boys," said the schoolmaster, whc^ the clock 
struck twelve, " that I shall give you an extra half-holiday this 
afternoon." 

" You remember my garden, Henry," whispered the old 
man, anxious to rouse him, for a dullness seemed gathering 
upon the child, " and how pleasant it used to be in the evening- 
time ?" 

" Therefore," said he, " hath it in all confidence been ordered 
by the Commons of Great Britain, that I impeach Warren 
Hastings of high crimes and misdemeanors." 

" 01), no," said the Earth, " thou shalt not lie, 
Neglected and lone, on my lap to die, 
Thou fine and delicate child of the sky." 

No further seek his merits to disclose, 

Or draw his frailties from their dread abode, 

(There they alike in trembling hope repose,) 
The bosom of his Father, and his God. 



EXERCISE XV.— COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

Obs. 1. — In analyzing compound sentences, at this stage of the pupil's 
progress, the leading clause should be distinguished from the subordinate 
clause. It must, however, be understood that the dependence of the latter 
upon the former, is logical, not grammatical, differing in this respect alto- 
gether from the relation of the principal and the dependent clause of a com- 
plex sentence, which is purely grammatical, since the latter is an adjunct, 
or used as one of the principal parts, in the principal clause. 

Obs. 2. — Some clauses are simply connected without logical or grammatical 
dependence. They may then be called coordinate clauses. 

[ISF* In the following examples of analysis, for the purpose of abbrevia- 
tion, and in order to furnish the pupil with a ready method of clearly repre- 
senting, in written exercises, the parts of a sentence and their relations, the 
compound clauses or members are marked by capitals ; the simple clatises, by 
numerals ; and the phrases, by small letters. When these are all written 
out in the order in which they occur, care being taken to unite in brackets 
dependent clauses contained in the same sentence or member, the character 
and composition of the sentence analyzed will be exhibited. 

According to this mode of representation, a simple sentence would, of 
course, have no numerical or literal designation ; 1 would indicate a complex 
sentence with a simple dependent clause • 1, 2, a compound sentence con- 
sisting of two simple clauses, but if enclosed in brackets thus [1, 2], a com- 



CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 140 

plex sentence containing two dependent clauses ; A, 1, 2, B, 3, 4, a compound 
sentence composed of two compound members ; but A, [1, 2], B, [3, 4], a 
compound sentence composed of two complex members, each containing 
two dependent clauses ; A, 1, B, 2, a compound sentence composed of two 
complex members, each containing one dependent clause ; A, 1, 2, B, 3, a 
compound sentence composed of a compound and a complex member: 
A, 1, B, 2, 3, a compound sentence containing a complex and a compound 
member ; A, B, 1, a complex sentence containing a complex dependent 
member, which itself contains a complex dependent member ; and so on. 

This mode of presenting to the eye the general conformation of a sen- 
tence, its members, clauses, etc., in their order and, partially, their depen- 
dence, will be found easy after the previous practice, and cannot fail to be 
useful. [In the forms of analysis given, S. stands for subject ; P., for predi- 
cate ; 0., for object ; Att., for attribute ; Ad., for adjunct.] 

EXAMPLES ANALYZED. 

1. " Let him that hastens to be rich, take heed lest he sud- 
denly become poor." 

Analysis. — Compound imperative sentence ; consisting of 

A. (Leading) Let him that hastens to be rich, take heed ; 

1. (Subordinate) He suddenly become poor. Connective,^. 

A. Complex imperative member. 

S. Thou (understood); P. let; 0. hvm, that hastens to be rich, take 
heed. (B.) 

B. Complex infinitive member. 

S. him ; P. take ; O. heed. 

Ad. S. that hastens to be rich. (2). 
2. Simple adjective clause. 

S. that ; P. hastens ; Ad. P. to be rich. (a), 
a. Simple adverbial phrase. 

Prin. part, to be • Ad. rich (indirect attribute). 
1. Simple clause. 

S. he; P. become; Att. poor ; Ad. P. suddenly. 

2. " Say not thou, ' I will recompense evil ;' but wait on tha 
Lord, and he sball save thee." 

Analysis. — Compound imperative sentence ; consisting of two coordinate 
members : 

A. Say not thou, " I will recompense evil." 

B. Wait on the Lord, and he snail save thee. Con. but. 

A. Complex imperative member. 

S. Thou; P. say ; O. L will recompense evil (1) ; Ad. P. not. 

1. Simple declarative clause. 

S. /; P. will recompense ; O. evil. 

B. Compound imperative member. 

2. Wait on the Lord. 

3. He shall save thee ; connective, and. 

2. Simple imperative clause. 

S. Thou (understood) ; P. wait; Ad. P. on the Lord. (a), 
a. Simple adverbial phrase. 

Prin. part, Lord ; Ad. the. 
8. Simple declarative clause. 

S. He ; P. shall save ; 0. thee. 

If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat ; if he be 
thirsty, give him water to drink. 

If the mind were left uncultivated, though nothing else 
should find entrance, vice certainly would. 



14A INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART ILL 

"While riotous indulgence enervates both the body and the 
mind, purity and virtue heighten all the powers of human 
fruition. 

If the King were present, Cleon, there would be no need of 
my answering to what thou hast just proposed. 

He seems to have made an injudicious choice, though he is 
esteemed a sensible man. 

The person he chanced to see, was, to appearance, an old, 
sordid, blind man ; but, upon his following him from place to 
place, he at last found, by his own confession, that he was 
j?lutus, the god of riches. 

I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give 
me liberty, or give me death. 

Let any one resolve always to do right now, leaving then to 
do as it can, and if he were to live to the age of Methuselah, 
he would never do wrong ; but the common error is to resolve 
to act right after breakfast, or after dinner, or to-morrow morn- 
ing, or next time ; but now, just now, this once, we must go on 
the same as ever. 

It seems easier to do right to-morrow than to-day, merely 
because we forget, that when to-morrow comes, then will bo now. 

The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 
Had he thy reason, would he skip and play 1 

Inspiring thought of rapture yet to be ! 
The tears of love were hopeless but for thee ! 
If in that frame no deathless spirit dwell, 
If that faint murmur be the last farewell, 
If fate unite the faithful but to part, 
Why is their memory sacred to the heart ? 

EXERCISE XVI.— MISCELLANEOUS SENTENCES. 

EXAMPLES ANALYZED. 

1. " Rasselas could not catch the fugitives, with his utmost 
efforts ; but, resolving to weary, by perseverance, him whom he 
could not surpass in speed, he pressed on till the foot of the 
mountain stopped his course." — Johnson. 

Analysis. — Compound declarative sentence : 

1. Basselas could not catch the fugitive with his utmost effort* ; 

A. Resolving to weary .... course. Connective, but. 
1. Simple declarative clause. 

S. Basselas ; P. could catch ; 0. fugitive. 

Ad. P. not, with his utmost efforts (a) ; Ad. 0. the, 
a. Simple adverbial phrase. 

Prin. part, eforts ; Ad. his and utmost, 
A. Complex declarative member. 



CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 145 

S. He ; P. pressed. 

Ad. S. resolving to weary, by perseverance, him .... speed (b) ; 

Ad. P. on, and till the foot of the mountain stopped his course (2). 
h. Complex adjective phrase. 

Prin. part, resolving ; Ad. to weary .... speed (c). 
C. Complex objective phrase. 

Prin. part, to weary ; Ad. him (obj.) and by perseverance ; Ad. of 
him, whom .... speed (3). 
8 Simple adjective clause. 

S. Re ; P. could surpass ; O. whom ; Ad. P. not and in speed. 
S» Simple adverbial clause. 

S. foot; P. stopped ; O. course. 

Ad. S. the, of the mountain; Ad. P. till ; Ad. 0. his ; Connective, till. 

2. " There is strong reason to suspect that some able Whig 
politicians, who thought it dangerous to relax, at that moment, 
the laws against political offences, but who could not, without 
incurring the charge of inconsistency, declare themselves ad- 
verge to relaxation, had conceived a hope that they might, by 
fomenting the dispute about the court of the lord high steward, 
defer for at least a year the passing of a bill which they dis- 
liked, and yet could not decently oppose." — Macaulay. 

Analysis. — Complex, declarative sentence : 
S. Reason; P. is. 

Ad. S. strong, to suspect .... oppose ; (a) Ad. P. there. 
a. Complex adjective phrase. 

Prin. part, to suspect; Ad. (object), Some able .... oppose; (A) 
Con. that. 

A. Complex object clause. 

S. Politicians; P. had conceived ; 0. hope. 

Ad. S. Some, able, Whig, and the two coordinate clauses, connected 
by but, Who thought .... offences, (B), Who could . ... re- 
laxation (C) ; Ad. O. They might .... oppose (D). Con. that. 

B. Complex adjective clause. 

S. who • P. thought ; O. It (to be) dangerous .... offences (1). 
1. Simple object clause, of the infinitive form. 

S. It; P. to be (und.) ; At. dangerous. 

Ad. S. to relax .... offenses, (b) 
to. Complex explanatory phrase. 

Prin. part, to relax; Ad. (primary) at that moment, (c) and laws; 
(Secondary), the, and against political offences, (d) 

c. Simple adverbial phrase. 

d. Simple adjective phrase, modifying laws. 

C. Complex adjective clause. 

S. Who ; P. could declare ; 0. themselves (to be) adverse to relaxa- 
tion (2). 
Ad. P. not, without incurring the charge of inconsistency (e). 
4. Complex adverbial phrase. 

Prin. part, incurring ; Ad. (primary), charge; (secondary), the, and 
of inconsistency. 
t. Simple object clause, infinitive form. 

S. themselves; P. to be (und.) ; Att. adverse ; Ad. Att. to relaxation. 

D. Complex adjective clause. 

S. they ; P. might defer ; 0. passing. 

Ad. r. by fomenting .... steward (f), for at least a year (g) ; 
Ad. 0. the, and of a bill which .... oppose (h). 
£ Complex adverbial phrase. 

Prin. part, fomenting ; Ad. (primary), dispute, (secondary), ike, and 
emtft .... steward (i). 



146 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART li^ 

L Complex adjective phrase. 

Priii. part, court ; Ad. the, and of the lord high steward (k), 
k. Simple adjective phrase. 
g c Simple adverbial phrase. 

Prin. part, year ; Ad. a. At least, independent phrase. 
h. Complex adjective phrase. 

Prin. part, bill ; Ad. a, and which .... oppose (3). 
8. Simple adjective clause, with a compound predicate. 

S. they - K P. (compound), disliked, and could oppose; Con.dn&* 0« 
which. 

Ad. P. (second), not and decently. 

%. What wonder, when 

Millions of fierce encount'ring Angels fought 
On either side, the least of whom could wield 
These elements, and arm him with the force 
Of all their regions ? How much more of pow'r 
Army 'gainst army numberless, to raise 
Dreadful combustion warring, and disturb, 
Though not destroy, their happy native seat ; 
Had not th' Eternal King omnipotent 
From his strong hold of Heav'n high over-ruled 
And limited their might ; though number'd such 
As each divided legion might have seem'd 
A num'rous host, in strength each armed band 
A legion, led iu fight yet leader seem'd 
Each warrior single as in chief, expert 
When to advance, or stand, or turn the sway 
Of battle, open when, and when to close 
The ridges of grim war. — Paradise Lost, VI., 219. 

Analysis. — The first period which terminates at regions, is a compound in- 
terrogative sentence. 

1. What wonder (sliould there be) ? A. When .... regions ; Con. 

when (used as a conjunction). 
1. Simple interrogative clause. 
A. Compound declarative member. 

2. When millions .... side • 3. The least .... regions ; Con. whom. 
The second period, comprising the remainder of the passage, is a com- 
pound exclamatory sentence. 

1. How .... seat ; A. Had .... grim war ; Con. ^(understood). 

1. Simple exclamatory clause. 

S. army ; P. would have wielded (understood) ; O. power. 

Ad. S. numberless, and warring against {numberless) army ; Ad. O. 

to raise dreadful combustion, and disturb, though not destroy ih*ir 

happy native seat. 

A. Compound member. 

2. Had .... might ; B. Though .... war ; Con. though* 

2. Simple clause, with a compound predicate. 

B. Compound declarative member. 

3. (They toere) number 'd such ; 

C. Each divided legion .... war ; Con. as (for that), 
S. Simple declarative clause. 

C. Compound declarative member. 

4. Each divided legion .... host ,* 
I. Jn strength .... legion,*; 



CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PAUSING. 147 

D. Led vn fight .... war. No connective. 
4. 5. Simple declarative clauses. 
D. Compound delarative member. 

6. Each single warrior seemed as a leader in chief, expert .... war J 

7. (Be was) led in fight. Connectives (correspond.), though and yet. 
6. Simple declarative member. 

S. Warrior; P. seemed; Att. leader (connected to the subject by as). 
Ad. S. each, single; Ad. Att. a, in chief, and expert ; Ad. of expert, 
When to advance .... war (a). 
a. Compound adverbial phrase. 

b. When to advance ; c. w^im to stand; d. wAe» to turn tlie sway o} 
battle; e. when to open and when to close the ridges of grim war. 



$&" \Let the pupil be required to analyze and parse orally, 
according to the Praxis, the sentences in the following para- 
graphs, or to prepare a written analysis of each, according to 
the method, indicated in the examples, and explained in the 
Remark on page 142.] 

1. Let the ambitious, whether soldiers, tribunes, or kings, 
reflect, that if there are mercenary soldiers to serve them, and 
flatterers to excuse them while they reign, there is the con- 
science of humanity afterwards to judge them, and pity to de- 
test them.— Lamar tine. 

2. Some, in their discourse, desire rather commendation of 
wit, in being able to hold all arguments, than of judgment in 
discerning what is true ; as if it were a praise to know what 
might be said, and not what should be thought. — Bacon. 

3. If all the means of education which are scattered over 
the world, and if all the philosophers and teachers of ancient 
and modern times, were to be collected together, and made to 
bring their combined efforts to bear upon an individual, all 
they could do would be to afford the opportunity of improve- 
ment. — Degerando. 

4. Dreams are the bright creatures of poem and legend, who 
sport on earth in the night-season, and melt away in the first 
beams of the sun, which lights grim Care and stern Reality in 
their daily pilgrimage through the world. — Dickens. 

5. Montaigne saith prettily, when he inquired the reason, 
why the word of the lie should be such a disgrace and such an 
odious charge. Saith he, " If it be well weighed, to say that a 
man lieth, is as much to say, as that he is brave towards God, 
and a coward towards men." — Bacon. 

6. Dear sensibility ! source inexhausted of all that is pre- 
cious in our joys, or costly in our sorrows, thou chainest thy 
martyr down upon his bed ©f straw, and 'tis thou who lift'st 



148 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART lit 

him up to heaven ! Eternal fountain of our feeling ! 'tis here 
I trace thee, and this is thy " divinity which stirs within me ;" 
not that, in some sad and sickening moments, " my soul shrinks 
back upon herself, and startles at destruction /" (mere pomp 
of words !) but that I feel some generous cares beyond myself 
All comes from thee, great — great Sensorium of the world ! 
which vibrates, if a hair of our heads but falls to the ground, 
in the remotest desert of thy creation. — Sterne. 

f I. On the fourth day of creation, when the sun after a glo- 
rious, but solitary course, went down in the evening, and dark- 
ness began to gather over the face of the uninhabited globe, 
already arrayed in the exuberance of vegetation, and prepared 
by the diversity of land and water, for the abode of uncreated 
animals and man, — a star, single and beautiful, stepped forth 
into the firmament. Trembling with wonder and delight in 
new-found existence, she looked abroad, and beheld nothing, in 
heaven or on earth, resembling herself. But she was not long 
alone ; now one, then another, here a third, there a fourth 
resplendent c mpanion had joined her, till, light after light 
stealing through the gloom, in the lapse of an hour, the wholo 
hemisphere was brilliantly bespangled. — Montgomery. 

8. To learn A, B, C, is felt to be extremely irksome by the 
infant, who cannot comprehend what it is for. The boy, forced 
to school, cons over his dull lesson because he must, but feels 
no amusement or satisfaction in it. The labor he is obliged to 
undergo is not small ; the privations of pleasure and activity, 
lie regrets still more; and all for what? To learn what he 
does not like ; to force into his mind words to which he at- 
taches no ideas, or ideas which appear to him to be of no value ; 
[because] he cannot put them to any proper use. Youth is 
not aware, that not for present use is all this designed. The 
dull, laborious, but necessary routine, like plowing and sowing 
the land, is in hopes of reaping abundance, at some not very 
distant season. Education is not the end, but only the means. 
— Taylor. 

9. Fired with a perusal of the Abyssinian pilgrim's explora- 
tory ramblings after the cradle of the infant Nilus, we well 
remember, on one fine summer holiday (a " whole day's leave " 
we called it at Christ's Hospital), sallying forth at rise of sun, 
not very well provisioned either for such an undertaking, to 
trace the current of the New River — Middletonian stream ! — 
to its scaturient source, as we had read, in meadows by fair 
Amwell. — Lamb. 

10. The voice of the world had whispered to Columbus thai 



CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 149 

the world is one; and as lie went forth toward the west, 
ploughing a wave which no European keel had entered, it was 
his high purpose not merely to open new paths to islands or to 
continents, but to bring together the ends of the earth, and join 
all nations in commerce and spiritual life. — Bancroft. 

11. To a limited apprehension, it would seem as if the greater 
part of the existence here allotted us, were little more than an 
apprenticeship to the business of living ; and that, if ever we 
come to understand our authentic position and relations in the 
world, and how our time and talents might have been wisely 
and most effectually employed, it is at a stage of life, when the 
journey is drawing to a close, and hardly an opportunity is 
left us to turn what we have been learning to account. — R. 
Chambers. 

12. We never, in a moral way, applaud or blame either our- 
selves or others for what we enjoy or what we suffer ; or for 
having impressions made upon us which Ave consider as being 
altogether out of our power : but only for what we do, or 
woald have done had it been in our power; or for what we 
leave undone which we might have done, or would have left 
undone though we could have done it.-^Bp. Butler. 

13. Resisting or not, however, we are doomed to suffer a 
bitter pang as often as the ii recoverable flight of our time is 
brought home with keenness to our hearts. The spectacle of a 
lady floating over the sea boat, and waking suddenly from 
sleep to find her magnificent ropes pearl necklace, by some 
accident detached at one from its fastenings, the loose 
string hanging down into the water, and pearl after pearl slip- 
ping off forever into the abyss, brings before us the sadness of 
the case. — De Quincey. 

14. Glowing with a vivid conception of these truths, so won- 
derful and so indisputable, let me ask, whether, among all the 
spectacles which earth presents, and which angels might look 
down upon with an ecstasy too deep for utterance, is there one 
fairer and more enrapturing to the sight than that of a young 
man, just fresh from the Creator's hands, and with the unspent 
energies of the coming eternity wrapped up in his bosom, sur- 
veying and recounting, in the solitude of his closet, or in the 
darkness of midnight, the mighty gifts with which he has been 
endowed, and the magnificent career of usefulness and of bless- 
edness, which has been opened before him ; and resolving, with 
one all- concentrating and all-hallowing vow, that he will live, 
true to the noblest capacities of his being, and in obedience to 
the highest law of his nature ! — Horace Mann, 

° 13* 



150 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

15. Could every man apply himself to [the] employments 
which are most suited to his capabilities, and, in his appointed 
calling, work only with a view to serviceable, sincere, and en 
nobling results, the measure of his achievements might still, 
perchance, fall short of his original aspirations ; but, being 
commensurate with his powers, and conformable to the eternal 
laws, it could not fail to yield him that assurance of security 
and contentment which, by necessity, proceeds from all faith 
fulness of action. — Chambers. 

k 16. By the immortal gods, I wish (pardon me, my coun* 
try ! for I fear what I shall say out of a pious regard for Milo 
may be deemed impiety against thee) that Clodius not only 
lived, but were praetor, consul, dictator, rather than [that I 
should] be witness to such a scene as this. Immortal gods ! 
how brave a man is that, and how worthy of being preserved 
by you! By no means, he cries; the ruffian met with the 
punishment he deserved ; and let me, if it must be so, suffer 
the punishment I have not deserved. — Duncan's Cicero. 

17. Where American liberty raised its first voice, and where 
its youth was nurtured and sustained, there it still lives, in the 
strength of its manhood, and full of its original spirit. If dis- 
cord and disunion shall wound it ; if party strife and blind am- 
bition shall hawk at and tear it ; if folly and madness, if un- 
easiness under salutary restraint, shall succeed to separate it 
from that Union, by which alone its existence is made sure, it 
will stand, in the end, by the side of that cradle in which its 
infancy was rocked ; it will stretch forth its arm with what- 
ever of vigor it may still retain, over the friends who gathered 
around it ; and it will fall at last, if fall it must, amid the proud- 
est monuments of its glory, and on the very spot of its origin.— 
Webster. 

18. So live, that when thy summons comes to join 
The innumerable caravan, that moves 

To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take 

His chamber in the silent halls of death, 

Thou go not like the quarry-slave at night, 

Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed 

By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave, 

Like one who wraps th' drapery of his couch 

About him, and lies dc> n to pleasant dreams. — Bryant* 

19. Of chance or change, let not man complain, 
Else shall he never, never cease to wail ; 

For, from the imperial dome, to where the swaia 
Rears the lone cottage in the silent dale, 



CHAP. I.] SYNTAX.— ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 151 

All feel th' assaults of Fortune's fickle p-ale ; 
Art, empire, Earth itself, to change are doora'd; 
Earthquakes have raised to heaven the humble vale, 
And gulfs the mountain's mighty mass entomb'd ; 
And where th' Atlantic rolls, wide continents have bloom'd, 

Beat tie. 

20. The One remains, the many change and pass ; 
Heavens light forever shines, Earth's shadows fly; 
Life, like a dome of many-colored glass, 

Stains the white radiance of Eternity, 

Until Death tramples it to fragments. — Die, 

If thou wouldst be with that which thou dost seek! 

Follow where all is fled ! — Rome's azure sky, 

Flowers, ruins, statues, music, — words are weak 

The glory they transfuse, with fitting truth to speak. 

Shelley, 

21. The honey-bee, that wanders all day long 

The field, the woodland, and the garden o'er, 
To gather in his fragrant winter store, 
Humming in calm content his quiet song, 
Seeks not alone the rose's glowing breast, 
The lily's dainty cap, the violet's lips ; 
But from all rank and noisome weeds he sips 
The single drop of sweetness ever pressed 
Within the poisoned chalice. Thus, if we 
Seek only to draw forth the hidden sweet 
In all the varied human flowers we meet 
In the wide garden of humanity, 
And, like the bee, if home the spoil we bear, 
Hived in our hearts, it turns to nectar there. 

A. C. Lynch, 

22. And Ardennes waves above them her green leaves, 
Dewy with Nature's tear-drops, as they pass, 
Grieving, if aught inanimate ere grieves, 

Over the unreturning brave, — alas ! 
Ere evening to be trodden like the grass, 
Which now beneath them, but above shall grow 
In its next verdure, when the fiery mass 
Of living valor, rolling on the foe, 

And burning with high hope, shall moulder cold and low. 

Byron, 

23. Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate, 
All but the page prescribed, their present state ; 



152 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IIL 

From brutes what men, from men -what spirits know ; 

Or who could suffer being here below ? 

The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 

Had he thy reason, would he skip and play? 

Pleas'd to the last, he crops the flowery food, 

And licks the hand just rais'd to shed his blood. 

Oh blindness to the future ! kindly given 

That each may fill the circle mark'd by Heaven, 

"Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, 

A hero perish, or a sparrow fall, 

Atoms or systems into ruin hurPd, 

And now a bubble burst, and now a world. — Pope, 

24. As thus the snows arise ; and, foul and fierce, 
All Winter drives along the darkened air ; 
In his own loose-revolving fields, the swain 
Disaster' d stands ; sees other hills ascend, 

Of unknown joyless brow ; and other scenes, 

Of horrid prospect, shag the trackless plain ; 

Nor f nds the river, nor the forest, hid 

Beneath the formless wild ; but wanders on 

From hill to dale, still more and more astray ; 

Impatient flouncing through the drifted heaps, 

Stung with the tho lghts of home; the thoughts of homo 

Kush on his nerves, and call their vigor forth 

In many a vain attempt. — Thomson. 

25. O treacherous conscience ! while she seems to sleep 
On rose and myrtle, lull'd with syren song ; 
While she seems, nodding o'er her charge, to drop 
On headlong appetite the slacken'd reign, 

And give us up to license, unrecall'd, 
Unmark'd ; — sec, from behind her secret stand,* 
The sly informer minutes every fault, 
And her dread diary with horror fills. 
Not the gross act alone employs her pen : 
She reconnoitres fancy's airy band, 
A watchful foe ! the formidable spy, 
Listening, o'erhears the whispers of our camp ; 
Our dawning purposes of heart explores, 
And steals our embryos of iniquity. — Young* 

26. The pulpit, therefore, (and I name it, filled 
With solemn awe, that bids me well beware 
With what intent I touch that holy thing,) — 

* Sen) Gbs. ft, poga Ut. 



CHAP. I.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PAUSING. 153 

The pulpit (when the satirist has, at last, 

Strutting and vaporing in an empty school, 

Spent all his force and made no proselyte) — 

I say the pulpit (in the sober use 

Of its legitimate, peculiar powers) 

Must stand acknowledged, "while the world shall stand, 

The most important and offectual guard, 

Support, and ornament of virtue's cause. 

There stands the messenger of truth; there, stand* 

The legate of the skies ; his theme, divine ; 

His office, sacred ; his credentials, clear. 

By him the violated law speaks out 

Its thunders ; and, by him, in strains as sweet 

As angels use, the Gospel whispers peace. — Cowper, 

27. Look, as I blow this feather from my face, 
And as the air blows it to me again, 
Obeying with my wind when I do blow, 
And yielding to another when it blows, 
Commanded always by the greater gust ; 
Such is the lightness of you common men. 

Shakspeare* 

28. Nature never did betray 

The heart that loved her ; 'tis her privilege 
Through all the years of this our life, to lead 
From joy to joy ; for she can so inform 
The mind that is within us, so impress 
"With quietness and beauty, and so feed 
With lofty thoughts, that neither evil tongues, 
Kash judgments, nor the sneers of selfish men 
Shall e'er prevail against us, or distrust 
Our cheerful faith that all which we behold 
Is full of blessings. — Wordsworth. 

29. O, Adam, one Almighty is, from whom 
All things proceed, and up to him return, 
If not depraved from good, created all 
Such to perfection, one first matter all, 
Endued with various forms, various degrees 
Of substance, and in things that live, of life ; 
But more refined, more spirituous, and pure, 
As nearer to him placed, or nearer tending 
Each in their sev'ral active spheres assign' d, 
Till body rp to spirit work, in bounds 
Proportion'd to each kind. — Milton, 



154" INSTITUTES OF ENG^*SH GRAMMAR. j_PART HI. 



CHAPTEE II.— EELATION' AND AGKEEMENT. 

In this chapter and the next, the Eules of Syntax are 
again exhibited, in their former order, with Examples, 
Exceptions, Observations, Notes, and Ealse Syntax. 
The Hotes are all of them, in form and character, sub- 
ordinate rules of syntax, designed for the detection of 
errors. The correction of the Ealse Syntax placed under 
the rules and notes, will form an oral exercise, somewhat 
similar to that of parsing, and perhaps more useful. 

Obs. — Relation and Agreement are taken together that the rules may stand 
in the order of the part's of speech. The latter is moreover naturally allied 
to the former. Seven of the ten parts of speech are, with a few exceptions, 
incapable of any agreement ; of these, the relation and use must be explained 
in parsing ; and all necessary agreement between any of the rest, is confined 
to words that relate to each other 

RULE I.— ARTICLES. 

Articles relate to the nouns which they limit : as, u At 
a little distance from the ruins of the abbey, stands an 
aged elm." 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

The definite article, used intensively, ma; relate to an adjective or adverb 
of the comparative or the superlative degree; as, "A land which was the 
mightiest." — Byron. " The farther they proceeded, the greater appeared 
their alacrity." — Dr. Johnson. " He chooses it the rather."— Cowper. [See 
Obs. 7th, next page.] 

EXCEPTION SEC XND. 

The indefinite article is sometimes used to give a collective meaning to an 
adjective of number; as, "Thou hast a few names, even in Sardis." — Rev. 
" There are a thousand things which crowd into my memory." — Spectator, 
No. 468. [See Obs. 12th, next page.] 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE I. 

Obs. 1. — Articles often relate to nouns understood; as. "The [river] 
Thames,"— " Pliny the younger" [man],— "The honourable [body], the 
Legislature,"— " The animal [world] and the vegetable world," — "Neither 
to the right [hand] nor to the left" [hand]. — Mole. " He was a good man, 
and a just" [man].— lb. "The pride of swains Palemon was, the generous 
[man], and the rich" [man]. — Thomson. 

Obs. 2.— It is not always necessary to repeat the article before several nouns 
in the same construction : the same article serves sometimes to limit the sig- 
nification of more than one noun ; but we doubt the propriety of ever con- 
struing two articles as relating to one and the same noun. 

Obs. 3.— The article precedes its noun, and is never, by itself, placed after 
it; as, "Passion is ^drunkenness of the mind."— Southey. 

Obs. 4.— -When an adjective precedes the noun, the article is placed before 
*he adjective, that its power may extend over that also ; as, 
" Tlit private path, the secret acts of men, 
If -uoble, far the noblest of their lives."— Totmg. 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— RULE I.— ARTICLES. 155 

Except the adjectives all, such, many, what, loth, and those which, are pre- 
ceded by the adverbs too, so, as, or how ; as, " All the materials were bought 
at too dear a rate." — " Like many an other poor -wretch, I now suffer all th* 
ill consequences of so foolish an indulgence." 

Obs. 5. — When the adjective is placed after the noun, the article generally 
retains its place before the noun, and is not repeated before the adjective ; 
as, "A men ignorant of astronomy," — " The primrose pale." In Greek, when 
an adjective is placed after its noun, if the article is prefixed to the noun, it 
is repeated before^he adjective; as, 'H n6\is i] pey&\ri, The city the great ; i.e., 
The great city. 

Obs. 6. — Articles, according to their own definition, belong before their 
nouns ; but the definite article and an adjective seem sometimes to' be placed 
after the noun to which they both relate : as, " Section the Fourth," — " Henry 
the Eighth." Such examples, however, may be supposed elliptical ; and, if 
they are so, the article, in English, can never be placed after its noun, nor 
can two articles ever properly relate to one noun, in any particular construc- 
tion of it. 

Obs. 1. — The definite article is often prefixed to comparatives and superla- 
tives; and its effect is, as Murray observes, (in the words of Lowing) "to 
mark the degree the more strongly,"and to define it the more precisely:" as, 
" The oftener I see him, the more I respect him." — " A constitution the most 
fit." — "A claim, the strongest, and the most easily comprehended." — " Tho 
men the most difficult to be replaced." In these instances, the article seems 
to be used adverbially, and to relate only to the adjective or adverb following 
it ; but after the adjective, the noun may be supplied. 

Obs. 8. — The article the is applied to nouns of both numbers ; as, The man, 
the men ; — The good boy, the good boys. 

Obs. 9. — The article the is generally prefixed to adjectives that are used, by 
ellipsis, as nouns ; as, 

" The great, the gay, shall they partake 
The heav'n that thou alone canst make ?" — Cowper. 

Obs. 10. — The article the is sometimes elegantly used in stead of a possess- 
ive pronoun ; as, " Men who have not bowed the knee to the image of 
BaaL" — Rom., xi, 4. 

Obs. 11. — An or a implies one, and belongs to nouns of the singular num- 
ber only ; as, A man, a good boy. 

Obs. 12. — An or a is sometimes put before an adjective of number, when 
the noun following is plural; as, U A few days," — U A hundred sheep," — 
" There are a great many adjectives." — Dr. Adam. In these cases, the arti- 
cle seems to relate only to the adjective. Some grammarians however call 
these words of number nouns, and suppose an ellipsis of the preposition of. 
Murray and many others call them adjectives, and suppose a peculiarity of 
construction in the article. 

Obs. 13. — An or a has sometimes the impoi't of each or every ; as, " Ho 
came twice a year." The article in this sense with a preposition understood, 
is preferable to the mercantile per, so frequently used ; as, " Fifty cents [for] 
a bushel," — rather than, u per bushel." 

Obs. 14. — A, as prefixed to participles in ing, or used in composition, is a 
preposition ; being, probably, the French a, signifying to, at, on, %n, or of; as, 
'" They burst out a laughing." — M. Edgeworih. " He is gone a hunting."— 
" She lies a-bed all day." — "He stays out a-nights." — "They ride out a~ 
Sundays." Shahspeare often uses the prefix a, and sometimes in a manner 
peculiar to himself; as, " Tom's a cold," — " a weary." 

Obs. 15. — An is sometimes a conjunction, signifying if; as, 

" Nay, an thou'lt mouthe, I'll rant as well as thou." — Shah. 
NOTES TO RULE I. 

Note I. — When the indefinite article is required, a should 
always be used "before the sound of a consonant, and an, before 



156 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

that of a vowel ; as, " With the talents of an angel, a man 

may be a fool." — Young. 

Obs. — An was formerly used before all words beginning with A, and before 
several other words which are now pronounced in such a manner as to re- 
quire a: thus, we read in the Bible, "An, house,' 1 — " an hundred," — "an* 
one," — u an ewer," — " an usurer." 

Note II. — When nouns are joined in construction, without 
a close connexion and common dependence, the article must 
be repeated. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate : 
" She never considered the quality, but merit of her visitors." 
— Wm. Penn. The should be inserted before merit. 

Note III. — When adjectives are connected, and the quali- 
ties belong to things individually different, though of the same 
name, the article should be repeated: as, "A black and a 
white horse ;"■ — i. e., two horses, one black and the other white. 

Note IV. — When adjectives are connected, and the qualities 
all belong to the same thing or things, the article should not 
be repeated : as, "A black and white horse j" — i. e., one horse, 
piebald. 

Obs. 1. — The reason of the two preceding notes is this : by a repetition of 
the article before several adjectives in the same construction, a repetition of 
the noun is implied ; but without a repetition of the article, the adjectives 
are confined to one and the same noun. 

Obs. 2. — To avoid repetition, we sometimes, with one article, join incon- 
sistent qualities to a plural noun; as, "The Old and New Testaments," — 
for, " The Old and the New Testament." But the phrases, " The Old and 
New Testament" and, " The Old and the New Testaments" are both obvi- 
ously incorrect. 

Note V. — The article should not be used before the names 
of virtues, vices, passions, arts, or sciences ; before simple 
proper names ; or before any noun whose signification is suf- 
ficiently definite without it : as, " Falsehood is odious." — "Iron 
is useful." — "Beauty is vain." 

Note VI. — When titles are mentioned merely as titles, or 
names of things merely as names or words, the article should 
not be used ; as, " He is styled Marquis." — ' ; Ought a teacher 
to call his pupil Master ?" 

Note VII. — In expressing a comparison, if both nouns refer 
to the same subject, the article should not be inserted; if to 
different subjects, it should not be omitted : thus, if we say, 
"He is a better teacher than poet," we compare different 
qualifications of the same man ; but if we say, " He is a better 
teacher than a poet," we refer to different men. 

Note VIII. — The definite article, or some other definitive, 
is generally required before the antecedent to the pronoun who 
or which in a restrictive clause; as, "The men. who were pres- 
ent, consented." 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— RULE I.— ARTICLES. 157 

Note IX. — The article is generally required in that con- 
struction which converts a participle into a verbal noun; as, 
"The completing of this, by the working-out of sin inherent, 
must be by the power and spirit of Christ, in the heart." — ■ 
Wm. Penn. " They shall be an abhorring unto all flesh." — ■ 
Isaiah, lxvi, 24. 

Note X. — The article should not be prefixed to a participle 
that is not taken in all respects as a noun ; as, " He made a 
mistake in the giving out the text." Expunge the, 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE I. — ARTICLES. 

g5^~ [The Examples of False Syntax placed under the rules, are to be corrected 
orally by the pupil, according to the formules given, or according to others framed in 
like manner, and adapted to the several notes.] 

Examples under Note 1. — AN or A. 
He went into an house. 

[Formuxe.— Not proper, because the article an is used before house, which begina 
-with the sound of the eonsonant h. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 1st, 
" When the indefinite article is required, a should always be used before the sound of 
a consonant, and an before that of a vowel." Therefore, an should be a; thus, Ha 
went into a house.] 

This is an hard saying. 

A humble heart shall find favour. 

Passing from an earthly to an heavenly diadem. 

Few have the happiness of living with such an one 

She evinced an uniform adherence to the truth. 

A hospital is an asylum for the sick. 

This is truly an wonderful invention. 

He is an younger man than we supposed. 

An humorsome child is never long pleased. 

A careless man is unfit for a hostler. 

Under Note 2. — Nouns Connected. 

Avoid rude sports : an eye is soon lost, or bone broken. 
As the drop of the bucket and dust of the balance. 
Not a word was uttered, nor sign given. 
I despise not the doer, but deed. 

Under Note 3. — Adjectives Connected. 
What is the difference between the old and new method I 
The sixth and tenth have a close resemblance. 
Is Paris on the right hand or left % 
Does Peru join the Atlantic or Pacific ocean 1 
He was influenced both by a just and generous principle*. 
The book was read by the old and young. 
I have both the large and small grammar. 
Are both the north and south line measured ? 

14 



158 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAET IIL 

Are the north line and south both measured ? 
Are both the north and south lines measured % 
Are both the north lines and south measured ? 

Tinder Note 4. — Adjectives Connected. 

Is the north and the south line measured % 

Are the two north and the south lines both measured ? 

A great and a good man looks beyond time. 

They made but a weak and an ineffectual resistance. 

The Allegany and the Monongahela rivers form the Ohio. 

I rejoice that there is an other and a better world. 

Were God to raise up an other such a man as Moses. 

The light and the worthless kernels will float. 

Tinder Note 5.— Articles not Requisite, 

Cleon was an other sort of a man. 

There is a species of an animal called a seal. 

Let us wait in the patience and the quietness. 

The contemplative mind delights in the silence. 

Arithmetic is a branch of the mathematics. 

You will never have an other such a chance. 

I expected some such an answer. 

And I persecuted this way unto the death. 

Under Note 6. — Titles and Names. 

He is entitled to the appellation of a gentleman. 
Cromwell assumed the title of a Protector. 
Her father is honoured with the title of an Earl. 
The chief magistrate is styled a President. 
The highest title in the state is that of the Governor. 
" For the oak, the pine, and the ash, were names of whole 
classes of objects." — Blair's Rhetoric, p. 73. 

Under Note 7. — Comparisons. 
He is a better writer than a reader. 
He was an abler mathematician than a linguist. 
I should rather have an orange than apple. 

Under Note 8. — Nouns with Who or Which. 

Words which are signs of complex ideas, are liable to be mis- 
understood. 

Carriages which were formerly in use, were very clumsy. 

The place is not mentioned by geographers who wrote at that 
time. 



CHAP, II.] SYNTAX.— RULE II.— NOMINATIVES. 159 

Under Note 9. — Participial Nouns. 

Means are always necessary to accomplishing of ends. 
By seeing of the eye, and hearing of the ear, learn wisdom. 
In keeping of his commandments, there is great reward. 
[For revealing of a secret, there is no remedy. 
Have you no repugnance to torturing of animals % 

Under Note 10. — Participles, not Nouns. 

By the breaking the law, you dishonour the lawgiver. 
An argument so weak is not worth the mentioning. 
In the letting go our hope, we let all go. 
Avoid the talking too much of your ancestors. 
The cuckoo keeps the repeating her unvaried notes. 
Forbear the boasting of what you can do. 

EULE II.— NOMINATIVES. 

A Noun or a Pronoun which, is the subject of a finite 
yerb, must be in the nominative case : as, 

"I know thou sayst it : says thy life the same?"— Young. 

OBSERVATIONS ON* RULE II. 

Obs. 1. — To this rule there are no exceptions. And in connected language, 
every nominative stands as the subject of some verb expressed or under- 
stood ; except such as are put in apposition with other nominatives, accord- 
ing to Rule 3d—- after a verb, according to Rule 21st — or absolute, according 
to Eule 25th. 

Obs. 2. — The subject, or nominative, is generally placed before the verb ; 
as, "Peace dawned upon his mind." — Johnson. "What is written in the 
law? 1 '— Bible. 

Obs. 3.— But, in the following nine cases, the subject is usually placed 
after the verb, or after the first auxiliary: — 

1. "When a question is asked, without an interrogative pronoun in tho 
nominative case; as, "Shall mortals be implacable?" — "What art thou 
doing?"— Hooke. 

2. When the verb is in the imperative mood : as, " Go thou.'' 1 

3. When an earnest wish, or other strong feeling is expressed ; as, " May 
she be happy !" — " How were ice struck /" — Younq. 

4. When a supposition is made without a conjunction ; as, " Were it true, 
it would not injure us." 

5. When neither or nor, signifying and not, precedes the verb ; as, " This 
was his fear ; nor was his apprehension groundless." 

6. When, for the sake of emphasis, some word or words are placed before 
the verb, which more naturally come after it ; as, " Here am //' — " Narrow 
is the way." — " Silver and gold have /none ; but such as I have, givelxhsti." 
— Bible. 

7. When the verb has no regimen, and is itself emphatical ; as, " Echo th3 
mountains round." — Thomson. 

8. When the verbs say, think, reply, and the like, introduce the parts of a 
dialogue ; as, " ' Son of affliction,' said Omar, ' who art thou V ' My name,' 
replied the stranger, ' is Hassan.' " — Johnson. 

9. When the adverb there precedes the verb ; as, " There Umd a »W»."— 
Montg, " In all worldly joys, there is a secret wound," — Owen. 



160 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PARTIIL 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE II. — NOMINATIVES. 
Thee must have been idle. 

[Formulr— Not proper, because the objective pronoun t/iee is made the subject of 
the verb must have been. But, according to Eule 2d, "A noun or a pronoun which 
is the subject of a finite verb, must be in the nominative case." Therefore, ih%* 
BhouJd be thou ; thus, Thou must have been idle.] 

Him that is studious, will improve. 

Them that seek wisdom, will be wise. 

She and me are of the same age. 

You are two or three years older than us. 

Are not John and thee cousins 1 

I can write as handsomely as thee, 

Nobody said so but him. 

Whom dost thou think was there ? 

Who broke this slate 1 Me. 

We are alone ; here 's none but thee and I. — ShaJc. 

Them that honour me, I will honour ; and them that despise 

me, shall be lightly esteemed. 
He whom in that instance was deceived, is a man of sound 

judgement. 

EULE III.— APPOSITION. 

A Noun or a personal Pronoun used to explain a pre- 
ceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the 
same case : as, 

" But he, our gracious Master, kind as just, 
Knowing our frame, remembers we are dust." — Barbauld. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE III. 

Obs. 1. — Apposition is the using of different words or appellations, to des- 
ignate the same thing. Apposition also denotes the relation which exists be- 
tween the words which are so employed. In parsing, rule third should he 
applied only to the explanatory term ; because the case of the principal term 
depends on its relation to the rest of the sentence, and comes under some 
other rule. 

Obs. 2. — To this rule, there are properly no exceptions. But there are many 
puzzling examples under it, which the following observations are designed 
to explain. The rule supposes the first word to be the principal term, with 
which the other is in apposition ; and it generally is so : but the explanatory 
word is sometimes placed first, especially among the poets ; as, 
" From bright'ning fields of ether fair disclos'd, 
Child of the sun, refulgent Summer comes."— Thomson. 

Obs. 3. — The pronouns of the first and second persons are often prefixed to 
nouns, merely to distinguish their person ; as, "I John saw these things."— 
" This is the stone which was set at nought of you builders.'''' — Bible. " His 
praise, ye brooks, attune." — Thomson. In this case of apposition, the words 
are closely united, and either of them may be taken as the explanatory term : 
the learner will find it easier to parse the noun by rule third. 
t Obs. 4. — When two or more nouns of the possessive case are put in apposi- 
tion, the possessive termination added to one, denotes the case of both or 
all : as, " His brother Philip 's wife ™— u John the Haptistfs head ;"— ;; At my 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— RULE III.— APPOSITION. 161 

friend Johnson's, the loohseller." By a repetition of the possessive sign, a 
distinct governing noun is implied, and the apposition is destroyed. 

Obs. 5. — In like manner, a noun without the possessive sign, is sometimes 
put in apposition with a pronoun of the possessive case; as, " As an author, 
his ' Adventurer' is his capital work." — Murray. 

" Thus shall mankind his guardian care engage, 
The promised/a^er of the future age." — Pope. 

Obs. 6. — When a noun or a pronoun is repeated for the sake of emphasis, 
the word which is repeated, may properly he said to he in apposition with 
that which is first introduced; as, "They have forsaken me, the Fountain 
of living waters, and hewed them out cisterns, broken cisterns, that oan 
hold no water." — Jer., ii, 13. 

Obs. 7. — A noun is sometimes put in apposition to a sentence; as, "He 
permitted mc to consult his library — a kindness which I shall not forget." — . 
IV. Allen. 

Obs. 8. — A distributive term in the singular number, is frequently con- 
strued in apportion with a comprehensive plural; as, " They reap vanity, 
every one with his neighbour." — Bible. " Go ye every man unto his city." — 
Ibid. And sometimes a plural word is emphatically put after a series of par- 
ticulars comprehended under it; as, "Ambition, interest, honour, all con- 
curred." — Murray. " Eoyalists, republicans, churchmen, sectaries, courtiers, 
patriots, all parties concurred in the illusion." — Hume. 

Obs. 9. — To express a reciprocal action or relation, the pronominal adjec- 
tives each other and one an other are employed : as, " They love each other ;" 
— " They love one an other.' 1 '' The words, separately considered, are singular ; 
but, taken together, they imply plurality ; and they can he properly construed 
only after plurals, or singulars taken conjointly. Each other is usually ap- 
plied to two objects ; and one an other, to more than two. The terms, though 
reciprocal, and closely united, are never in the same construction. If such 
expressions be analyzed, each and one will generally appear to be in the nom- 
inative case, and other in the objective; as, "They love each other ;" i.e., 
each loves the other. Each is properly in apposition with they, and other ia 
governed by the verb. The terms, however, admit of other constructions ; 
as, " Be ye helpers one of an other.' 1 ' 1 — Bible. Here one is in apposition with 
ye, and other is governed by of. " Ye are one an other's joy." — lb. Here o-na 
is in apposition with ye, and other's is in the possessive case, being governed 
by joy. " Love will make you one an other's joy." Here one is in the object- 
ive case, being in apposition with you, and other's is governed as before. 
TheZatirt terms alius alium, alii alios, &c, sufficiently confirm this doctrine. 

Obs. 10. — The common and iheproper name of an object are often associ- 
ated, and put in apposition ; as, The river Thames, — The ship Albion, — The 
poet Cowper, — Lake Erie, — Cape May, — Mount Atlas. But the proper 
name of a place, when accompanied by the common name, is generally put in 
the objective case, and preceded by of; as, The city of New York, — Tha 
land of Canaan. 

Obs. 11. — The several proper names which distinguish an individual, ara 
always in apposition, and should be taken together in parsing ; as, William 
Pitt, — Marcus Tullius Cicero. 

Obs. 12. — When an object acquires a new name or character from the ac- 
tion of a verb, the new appellation is put in apposition with the object of the 
'active verb, and in the nominative after the passive: as, " They named the 
child John /" — " The child was named John." — " They elected him president;" 
— u He was elected president." After the active verb, the acquired name 
must be parsed by Rule 3d ; after the passive, by Rule 21st. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE III. — APPOSITION. 

I have received a letter from my cousin, she that was hero 
last week. 

[Formulk. — Not proper, because the nominative pronoun she is used to explain tha 
©bjectivo noun cou&in. But, according to Rule 3d, "A noun or a personal pronoun 

14* 



162 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART lit. 

tised to explain a preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the same case." 
Therefore, she should be her; thus, I hare received a letter from iny cousin, her that 
was here last week.] 

The book is a present from my brother Eichard, he that keeps 
the bookstore. 

I am going to see my friends in the country, they that we met 
at the ferry. 

This dress was made by Catharine, the milliner, she that we 
saw at work. 

Dennis, the gardener, him that gave me the tulips, has prom- 
ised me a piony. 

Resolve me, why the cottager and king, 
Him whom sea-sever'd realms obey, and him 
Who steals his whole dominion from the waste, 
Repelling winter blasts with mud and straw, 
Disquieted alike, draw sigh for sigh. 

RULE IV.— ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns: as, "He is a 
wise man, though he is young" 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

An adjective sometimes relates to & phrase or sentence which is made tho 
subject of an intervening verb ; as, "To insult the afflicted, is impious."— 
fiil'koyn. '''■That lie should refuse, is not strange." 

EXCEPTION SECOND. 

"With an infinitive or a participle denoting being or action in the abstract, 
an adjective is sometimes also taken abstractly ; (that is, without reference 
to any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject;) as, "To be sincere, is to 
be ivise, innocent, and safe.' 1 ' 1 — Hawhesworth. "Capacity marks the abstract 
quality of being able to receive or hold." — GraWs Synonymes. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE IV. 

Obs. 1. — Adjectives often relate to nouns understood; as, "The nine" 
[muses']. — " Philip was one of the seven" [deacons]. — Acts, xxi, 8. " He came 
unto his own {possessions], and his own [men] received him not." — John, i, 
11. " The Lord your God is God of gods, and Lord of lords, a great God, a 
mighty [God], and a terrible" [God]. — Deut., x, 17. 

Obs. 2.— In as much as qualities belong only to things, most grammarians 
teach that every adjective belongs to some noun expressed or understood ; 
and suppose a countless number of unnecessary ellipses. But it is evident 
that in the construction of sentences, adjectives often relate immediately to 
pronouns x and, through them, to the nouns they represent. This is still 
more obviously the case, in some other languages, as may be seen by the 
following examples, which retain something of the Greek idiom : "AU ye are 
brethren." — Matt., xxiii, 8. " Whether of them twain did the will of his 
father?"— Matt., xxi, 31. 

Obs. 3. — When an adjective follows a finite verb, and is not followed by a 
noun, it generally relates to the subject of the verb ; as, "lava glad that the 
door is made wide." — " Every thing which is false, vicious, or unworthy, is 
despicable to him, though all the world should approve it." — Spectator, No. 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— RULE IV.— ADJECTIVES. 163 

620. Here false, vicious, and unworthy, relate to which; and despicable relates 
to thing. 

Obs. 4. — When an adjective follows an infinitive or a participle, the noun 
or pronoun to which it relates, is sometimes before it, and sometimes after 
it, and often considerably remote ; as, " A real gentleman cannot but practise 
those virtues which, by an intimate knowledge of mankind, he has found to 
be useful to them." — " He [a melancholy enthusiast] thinks himself obliged 
in duty to be sad and disconsolate.' 1 ' 1 — Addison. "He is scandalized at youth 
for being lively, and at childhood for being playful" — Id. "But growing 
weary of one who almost walked him out of breath, he left him for Horace 
and Anacreon." — Steele. 

Obs. 5. — Adjectives preceded by the definite article, are often used, by 
ellipsis, as having the force of nouns. They designate those classes of objects 
which are characterized by the qualities they express ; and, in parsing, the 
noun may be supplied. They are most commonly of the plural number, and 
refer to persons, places, or things, understood; as, "The careless [persons] 
and the imprudent, the giddy and the fickle, the ungrateful and the interested 
everywhere meet us."— Blair. 

" Together let us beat this ample field, 
Try what the open [places], what the covert, yield." — Pope. 

Obs. 6. — The adjective is generally placed immediately before its noun ; as, 
" Vain man ! is grandeur given to gay attire?" — Beattie. 

Obs. 7. — Those adjectives which relate to pronouns most commonly follow 
them ; as, " They left me weary on a grassy turf." — Milton. 

Obs. 8. — In the following instances, the adjective is placed after the noun 
to which it relates : 

1. When other words depend on the adjective; as, "A mind conscious of 
right," — " A wall three feet thick." 

2. When the quality results from the action of a verb ; as, " Virtue renders 
life happy." 

3. When the adjective would thus be more clearly distinctive; as, " Good- 
ness infinite," — " Wisdom unsearchable." 

4. When a verb comes between the adjective and the noun; as, " Truth 
stands independent of all external things." — Burgh. 

Obs. 9. — In some cases, the adjective may either precede or follow the 
noun; as, 

1. In poetry; as, 

" Wilt thou to the isles 
Atlantic, to the rich Hesperian clime, 
Fly in the train of Autumn?" — Akenside. 

2. In some technical expressions ; as, " A notary public," or, " A publio 
notary." 

3. When an adverb precedes the adjective; as, " ABeing infinitely wise," 
or, " An infinitely wise Being." 

4. When several adjectives belong to the same noun; as, " A woman, 
modest, sensible, and virtuous," or, " A modest, sensible, and virtuous wo- 
man." 

Obs. 10. — An emphatic adjective maybe placed first in the sentence, though 
it belong after the verb; as, u Weighty is the anger of the righteous." — ■ 
Bible. 

Obs. 11. — By an ellipsis of the noun, an adjective with a preposition before 
jt, is sometimes equivalent to an adverb; as, u In particular ? '" that is, in a 
particular manner; equivalent to "particularly." In parsing, supply the 
ellipsis. [See Obs. 2d, under Rule xxii.] 

NOTES TO RULE IV. 

Note I. — Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must 
agree with their nouns in number ; as, That sort, those sorts. 
Note II. — When the adjective is necessarily plural, or neces* 



164 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IIL 

sarily singular, the noun should be made so too ; as, "Twenty 
pounds" — not, " Twenty pound;" — "One session" — not, "One 
sessions." 

Obs. 1. — In some peculiar phrases, this rule appears to be disregarded ; as, 
11 Two hundred pennyworth of bread is not sufficient." — John, vi, 7. "Twenty 
sail of vessels ;'' — " A hundred head of cattle." 

Obs. 2. — To denote a collective number, a singular adjective may precede 
a plural one; as, "One hundred men," — "Every six weeks," — "One seven 
times." — Dan., hi, 19, 

Obs. 3. — To denote plurality, the adjective many may, in like manner, pre- 
cede an or a with a singular noun ; as, 

" Full many a flower- is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air." — Gray. 

Note III — The reciprocal expression, one an other, should 
not be applied to two objects, nor each other, or one the other, 
to more than two : because reciprocity between two is some 
act or relation of each or one to the other, an object definite, 
and not of one to an other, which is indefinite ; but reciprocity 
among three or more is of one, each, or every one, not to one 
other solely, or the other definitely, but to others, a plurality, 
or to an other, taken indefinitely and implying this plurality. 

Note IV. — The comparative degree can only be used in 
reference to two objects, or classes of objects ; the superlative 
compares one or more things with all others of the same class, 
whether few or many : as, " Edward is taller than James j he 
is the largest of my scholars." 

Note V. — When the comparative degree is employed, the 
latter term of comparison should never include the former ; as, 
"Iron is more useful than all the metals." It should be, "than 
all the other metals? 

Note VI. — When the superlative degree is employed, the 
latter term of comparison should never exclude the former ; as, 
" A fondness for show, is, of all other follies, the most vain." 
The w r ord other should be expunged. 

Note VII. — Comparative terminations, and adverbs of de- 
gree, should not be applied to adjectives that are not susceptible 
of comparison ; and all double comparatives and double super- 
latives should be avoided : as, "So universal a complaint :" 
say, "So general." — " Some less nobler plunder :" say, " less 
noble."—" The most straitest sect :" expunge most. 

Note VIII. — When adjectives are connected by and, or, or 
nor, the shortest and simplest should in general be placed first*, 
as, " He is older and more respectable than his brother." 

Note IX. — An adjective and its noun may be taken as a 
compound term, to which other adjectives may be prefixed. 
The most distinguishing quality should be expressed next to 
the noun : as, "A fine young man," — not, "A young fine man." 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— RULE IV.— ADJECTIVES. 165 

Note X. — In prose, the use of adjectives for adverbs, is im 
proper: as, "He writes elegant;"" — say, "elegantly" 

Obs. 1. — In poetry, an adjective relating to the noun or pronoun, is some- 
times elegantly used in stead of an adverb qualifying the verb or participle ; as, 
" To thee I bend the knee ; to thee my thoughts 
Continual climb." — Thomson. 
Obs. 2. — In order to determine, in difficult cases, whether an adjective ol 
an adverb is required, the learner should carefully attend to the definitions 
of these parts of speech, and consider whether, in the case in question, quul* 



musing." — " Stand firm ;*— maintain your cause firmly. r 

Note XI. — The pronoun them should never be used as an 
adjective in lieu of those : say, " I bought those books," — not, 
" them books." This isli vulgar error* 

Note XII. — When the pronominal adjectives, this and that, 
or these and those, are contrasted ; this or these should represent 
the latter of the antecedent terms, and that or those, the former; 
as, 

" And, reason raise o'er instinct as you can, 

In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man." — Pope. 
" Farewell my friends ! farewell my foes ! 
My peace with these, my love with those /" — Burns. 

Note XIII. — The pronominal adjectives each, one, either, and 
neither, are always in the third person singular ; and, when 
they are the leading words in their clauses, they require verbs 
and pronouns, to agree with them accordingly : as, "Each of 
you is entitled to his share." — " Let no one deceive himself.'''' 

Note XIV. — The pronominal adjectives either and neither 
relate to two things only ; when more are referred to, any and 
none should be used in stead of them : as, "Any of the three;" 
— not, "Either of the three." — "None of the four ;" — not, "Nei 
ther of the four," 

Note XV. — Participial adjectives retain the termination, 
but not the government, of participles ; when, therefore, they 
are followed by the objective case, a preposition must be in- 
serted to govern it : as, " The man who is most sparing of Yds 
yrords, is generally most deserving of attention." 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE IV. — ADJECTIVES. 
Examples under Note 1. — Of Agreement. 
Those sort of people you will find to be troublesome. 

[Formtjl-e. — Not proper, because the adjective those is in the plural number, and 
does not agree with its noun sort, which is singular. But, according to Note 1st under 
Rule 4th, "Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree with their nouno ia 
number.'" Therefore, those should be that; thus, That sort of people you will find to 
be troublosome.J 



166 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IIL 

Things of these sort are easily understood. 

Who broke that tongs? 

Where did I drop this scissors ? 

Bring out that oats. 

Extinguish that embers. 

I disregard this minutiae. 

Those kind of injuries we need not fear. 

What was the height of those gallows which Haman erected 1 

Under Note 2. — Of Fixed Numbers. 

We rode about ten mile an hour. 

'Tis for a thousand pound. — Cowper. 

How deep is the water 1 About six fathom. 

The lot is twenty -five foot wide. 

I have bought eight load of wood. 

Under Note 3. — Of Reciprocals. 

Two negatives in English destroy one another. — Lowth. 
That the heathens tolerated each other, is allowed. 
David and Jonathan loved one an other tenderly. 
Words are derived from each other in various ways. - 
Teachers like to see their pupils polite to each other. 
The Gracec always hold the one the other by the hand. 

Under Note 4. — Of Degrees. 

He chose the latter of these three. 

Trissyllables are often accented on the former syllable. 

Which are the two more remarkable isthmuses in the world ? 

Under Note 5. — Of Comparatives. 

The Scriptures are more valuable than any writings. 

The Russian empire is more extensive than any government 

in the world. 
Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, because he was 

the son of his old age. — Gen., xxxvii, 3. 

Under Note 6. — Of Superlatives. 

Of all other ill habits idleness is the most incorrigible. 

Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. 

Hope is the most constant of all the other passions. 

Under Note 7. — Extra Comparisons. 

That opinion is too universal to be easily corrected. 

Virtue confers the supremest dignity upon man. 

How much more are ye better than the fowls ! — Luke, xii 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— BULB IV.— ADJECTIVES. 167 

Do not thou hasten above the Most Highest. — Esdras, br. 
This was the most unkindest cut of all. — ShaJcspeare. 
The waters are mr.e sooner and harder frozen. — Verstegan. 
A more healthie' place cannot be found. 
The best and the most wisest men often meet with discourage 
ments. 

Under Note 8. — Adjectives Connected. 

He showed us a more agreeable and easier way. 
This was the most convincing and plainest argument. 
Some of the most moderate and wisest of the senators. 
This is an honourable and ancient fraternity. 
There vice shall meet an irrevocable and fatal doom. 

Under Note 9. — Adjectives Prefixed. 

He is a young industrious man. 

She has a new elegant house. 

The two first classes have read. 

The oldest two sons have removed to the westward. 

England had not seen such an other king. — Goldsmith, 

Under Note 10. — Adjectives for Adverbs, 

She reads well and writes neat. 

He was extreme prodigal. 

They went, conformable to their engagement. 

He speaks very fluent, and reasons justly. 

The deepest streams run the most silent. 

These appear to be finished the neatest. 

He was scarce gone when you arrived. 

I am exceeding sorry to hear of your misfortunes. 

The work was uncommon well executed. 

This is not such a large cargo as the last. 

Thou knowst what a good horse mine is, 

I cannot think so mean of him. 

He acted much wiser than the others. 

Under Note 11. — Them for Those, 

I bought them books at a very low price. 

Go and tell them boys to be still. 

I have several copies : thou art welcome to them two. 

Which of them three men is the most useful 1 

Under Note 12.— This and That. 

Hope is as strong an incentive to action, as fear : this is <h© 
anticipation of good, that of evil. 



168 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GKAMMAR. [PART IIL 

The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy ; but we 
should not therefore account those happy, and these miserable. 
Memory and forecast just returns engage, 
This pointing back to youth, that on to age, 

Under Note 13. — flack, One, dec. 
Let each of them be heard in their turn. 
On the Lord's day every one of us Christians keep the sab- 
bath. — Irenceus. 
Are either of these men known ? 
No : neither of them have any connexions here. 

Under Note 14. — Either and Neither. 
Did either of the company stop to assist you ? 
Here are six ; but neither of them will answer. 

Under Note 15. — Participial Adjectives. 

Some crimes are thought deserving death. 

Rudeness of speech is very unbecoming a gentleman. 

To eat with unwashen hands, was disgusting a Jew. 
Leave then thy joys, unsuiting such an age, 
To a fresh comer, and resign the stage. — Dryden. 

RULE V.— PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the 
noun or pronoun which, it represents, in person, number, 
and gender: as, " This is the friend of whom I spoke ; 
he has just arrived." — " This is the book which /bought ; 
it is an excellent work." — " Ye, therefore, who love 
mercy, teach your sons to love it too." — Cowjoer. 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

When a pronoun stands for some person or thing indefinite or unknown to 
the speaker, this rule is not strictly applicable ; because the person, number, 
and gender, are rather assumed than regulated by an antecedent : as, " I do 
not care who knows it." — Steele. " Who touched me ? Tell me who it was." 

EXCEPTION SECOND, 

The neuter pronoun it may be applied to a young child, or to other crea- 
tures masculine or feminine by nature, when they are not obviously distin- 
guishable with regard to sex ; as, " Which is the real friend to the child, the 
person who gives it the sweetmeats, or the person who, considering only its 
health, resists its importunities ?" — Opie. " He loads the animal, he is show- 
ing me, with so many trappings and collars, that I cannot distinctly view 
it." — Murray. "The nightingale sings most sweetly when it sings in the 
night."— Burke. 

EXCEPTION THIRD. 

The pronoun it is often used without a definite reference to any antece- 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— KULE V.— PK0N0TTNS. 169 

dent, and is sometimes a mere expletive ; as, " Whether she grapple it with 
the pride of philosophy." — Chalmers. 

" Come, and trip it as you go 
On the light fantastic toe." — Milton, 

EXCEPTION FOURTH. 

A singular antecedent with the adjective many, sometimes admits a plural 
pronoun, but never in the same clause ; as, 

" In Hawick twinkled many a light, 
Behind him soon they set in night."— W, Scott, ^ 

EXCEPTION FIFTH. 

"When a plural pronoun is put by enallage for the singular, it does not 
agree with its noun in number, because it still requires a plural verb ; as, 
" We [Lindley Murray] have followed those authors." — Murray's Gram., 8vo, 
p. 29. "We shall close our remarks on this subiect,"—- lb, " My lord, you 
Know I love you.' 1 '' — Shakspeare. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE V. 

Obs. 1. — The pronoun we is used by the speaker to represent himself and 
others, and is therefore plural. But it is sometimes used, by a sort of fiction, 
in stead of the singular, to intimate that the speaker is not alone in his opin- 
ions. Monarchs sometimes join it to a singular noun ; as, " We Alexander, 
Autocrat of all the Russias." They also employ the compound ourself, which 
is not used by other people. 

Obs. 2. — The pronoun you, though originally and properly plural, is now gen- 
erally applied alike to one person or to more. [See Ob». 2d, page 71.J This 
usage, however it may seem to involve a solecism, is established by that 
authority against which the mere grammarian has scarcely a right to remon- 
strate. We do not, however, think it necessary or advisable, to encumber 
the conjugations, as some have done, by introducing this pronoun and the 
corresponding form of the verb, as singular. It is manifestly better to say 
that the plural is used for the singular, by the figure Enallage. This change 
has introduced the compound yourself, which is used in stead of thyself 

Obs. 3.— The general usage of the French is like that of the English* you 
for thou ; but Spanish, Portuguese, and German politeness requires that the 
third person be substituted for the second. And, when they would be very 
courteous, the Germans use also the plural for the singular, as they for thou. 
Thus they have a fourfold method of addressing a person : as, they, denot- 
ing the highest degree of respect ; he, a less degree ; you, a degree still less ; 
and thou, none at all, or absolute reproach. Yet, even among them, the last 
Lj used as a term of endearment to children, and of veneration to God ! 

Obs 4. — Such perversions of the original and proper use of language, are 
doubtless matters of considerable moment. These changes in the use of the 
pronouns being evidently a sort of complimentary fictions, some have made it 
a matter of conscience to abstain from them, and have published their rea- 
sons for so doing. But the moral objections which may lie against such or 
any other applications of words, do not come within the grammarian's prov- 
ince. Let every one consider for himself the moral bearing of what ha 
titters. [See Matthew, xii, 36 and 37.] 

Obs. 5. — When a pronoun represents the name of an inanimate object per- 
sonified, it agrees with its antecedent in the figurative, and not in the literal 
sense ; [See the figure Syllepsis, in paet iv ;] as, 

" Penance dreams her life away." — Rogers. 

" Grim Darkness furls his leaden shroud." — Id. 

Obs. 6. — When the antecedent is applied metaphorically, the pronoun 
agrees with it in its literal, and not in its figurative sense ; as, " Pitt was the 
pillar which upheld the state." — " The monarch of mountains rears. Ms 
p»owy head." [See Figures, in paet rv.] 

8 



170 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAET I1X 

Obs. 7. — When the antecedent is put by metonymy for a noun of different 
properties, the pronoun sometimes agrees with it in the figurative, and 
sometimes in the literal sense ; as, 

"The wolf, who [that] from the nightly fold, 
Fierce drags the bleating prey, ne'er drunk Tier milk, 
Nor wore Tier warming fleece." — Thomson. 
" That each may fill the circle mark'd by Heaven, 
Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, 
A hero perish or a sparrow fall." — Pope. 
" And heaven beholds its image in his breast." — Id. 

Obs. 8. — When the antecedent is put by synecdoche for more or less than 
it literally signifies, the pronoun agrees with it in the figurative, and not in 
the literal sense ; as, 

« A dauntless soul erect, who smiled on death." — Thomson, 
"But, to the generous still improving mind, 
That gives the hopeless heart to sing for joy, 
To him the long review of ordered life 
Is inward rapture only to be felt." — Id. 

Obs. 9. — Pronouns usually follow the words which they represent ; but 
this order is sometimes reversed : as, " Whorn the cap fits, let him put it on," 
■ — " Hark ! they whisper ; angels say," &c. 

Obs. 10. — A pronoun sometimes represents a phrase or sentence; and in 
this case, the pronoun is always in the third person singular neuter : as, 
" She is very handsome; and she has the misfortune to know it." — " Yet men 
can go on to vilify or disregard Christianity ; which is to talk and act as if 
they had a demonstration of its falsehood." — Bp. Butler. 

Obs. 11. — When a pronoun follows two words, having a neuter verb be- 
tween them, and both referring to the same thing, it may represent either 
of them, but not with the same meaning ; as, 1. "I am the man who com- 
mand :" here, who command belongs to the subject 7, and the meaning is, 
" I who command, am the man." (The latter expression places the relative 
nearer to its antecedent, and is therefore preferable.) 2. "I am the man 
who commands :" here, who commands belongs to the predicate man, and 
the meaning is, " I am the commander.' 5 

Obs. 12. — After the expletive it, which may be employed to introduce a 
noun or pronoun of any person, number, or gender, the above-mentioned 
distinction is generally disregarded; and the relative is made to agree with 
the latter word : as, "It is not I that do it." The propriety of this construe^ 
tion is questionable. 

Obs. 13. — The pronoun it frequently refers to something mentioned in the 
subsequent part of the sentence. This pronoun is a necessary expletive at 
the commencement of a sentence in which the verb is followed by a clause 
which, by transposition, maybe made the subject of the verb; as, "It is im- 
possible to please every one.'''' — "It was requisite that the papers should besentP 

Obs. M. — Relative and interrogative pronouns are placed at or near the be- 
ginning of their own clauses ; and the learner must observe that, through 
all their cases, they almost invariably retain this situation in the sentence, 
and are often found before their verbs when the order of construction would 
reverse this arrangement : as, " He who preserves me, to whom I owe my 
being, whose I am, and whom I serve, is eternal." — Murray. " Who but God 
can tell us who they are ?" — Pope. " He whom you seek." — loivth. 

Obs. 15. — Every relative pronoun, being the representative of some antece- 
dent word or phrase, derives from this relation its person, number, and gen- 
der, but not its case. By taking an other relation of case, it helps to form an 
other clause; and, by retaining the essential meaning of its antecedent, 
serves to connect this clause to that in which the antecedent is found. Eel- 
atives, therefore, cannot be used in an independent simple sentence, nor 
with a subjunctive verb ; but, like other connectives, they belong at th-s head 
of a clause in a compound sentence, and they exclude conjunctions, except 
when two such clauses are to be joined together: as, " Blessed is the man, 
vsho feareth the Lord, and who keepeth his commandments." 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— RULE V.— PRONOUNS. 1T1 

Obs. 16. — The special rules commonly given by the grammarians, for th« 
construction of relatives, are both unnecessary and faulty. It usually takea 
two rules to parse a pronoun ; one for its agreement with the noun or nouns 
which it represents, and the other for its case. But neither relatives nor in- 
terrogatives require any special rules for the construction of their cases, he- 
cause the general rules for the cases apply to pronouns as well as to nouns. 
And both relatives and interrogatives generally admit every construction 
common to nouns, except apposition. Let the learner parse' the following 
examples : — 

1. Nominatives by Rule 2d: "I who write; — Thon. who writest; — He who 
writes} — the animal w?dch runs." — Dr. Adam. "He that spareth his rod, 
hateth his son." — Solomon. "He who does any thing which he knows is 
wrong, is a sinner." — " What will become of us without religion?" — Blair. 
" Here I determined to wait the hand of death ; which, I hope, when at last 
it comes, will fall lightly upon me." — Dr. Johnson. " What is sudden and 
unaccountable, serves to confound." — Crabb. " They only are wise, who are 
wise to salvation." — Goodwin. 

2. Nominatives by Rule 21st : " W7io art thou ?" — " What were we ?" — Bible. 
"Do not tell them who I am." — "Let him be who he may, he is not the 
honest fellow that he seemed." — " The general conduct of mankind is neither 
what it was designed, nor what it ought to be." 

3. Nominatives absolute by Rule 25th: "There are certain bounds to im- 
prudence and misbehaviour, which being transgressed, there remains no place 
for repentance in the natural course of things." — Bp. Butler. This construc- 
tion of the relative is a Lati:iism, and very seldom used by the best English 
writers. 

4. Possessives by Rule \§th : " The chief man of the island, whose name 
was Publius." — Acts. "Despair, a cruel tyrant, from whose prisons none 
can escape." — Dr. Johnson. " To contemplate on Him whose yoke is easy 
and whose burden is light." — Steele. 

5. Objectives by Rule 20th : "Those whom she persuaded." — Dr. Johnson* 
" The cloak that I left at Troas."— St. Pcml. " By the things which he suf- 
fered." — Id. "A man whom there is reason to suspect." — " What are we 
to do?" — Bwrke. "Love refuseth nothing that love sends."— Gumall. 
" Whomsoever you please to appoint." — Lowih. " Wliatsoever he doeth, shall 
prosper." — Bible. '■'•What we are afraid to do before men, we should be 
afraid to think before God." — Sibs. " Shall I hide from Abraham that thing 
which I do ?" — Gen., xviii, 32. " Shall I hide from Abraham what I do?" — 
" Call imperfection what thou fanciest such." — Pope. 

6. Objectives by Rule 21st: " He is not the man that I took him to be." — ■ 
" Whom did you suppose me to be ?" — " Let the lad become what you wish 
him to be." 

7. Objectives by Rule 22d: "To whom shall wecro?" — Bible. "The laws 
by which the world is governed, are general." — Butler. " Whom he looks 
upon as his defender." — Addison. "That secret heaviness' of heart which 
unthinking men are subject to." — Id. " I cannot but think the loss of such 
talents as the man oiwhom I am speaking was master of, a more melancholy 
instance." — Steele. 

Obs. 17. — In familiar language, the relative in the objective case is fre- 
quently understood; as, "Here is the letter [which] I received." The omis- 
sion of the relative in the nominative case, is inelegant; as, "This is the 
worst thing [that] could happen." The latter ellipsis sometimes occurs in 
poetry ; as, 

" In this 'tis God — directs, in that 'tis man." — Pope. 
Obs. 18. — The antecedent is sometimes suppressed, especially in poetry; 
as, "How shall I curse [him or them] whom God hath not cursed."— 
Numb. , xxiii, 8. 

EHe] " Who lives to nature, rarely can be poor ; 
He\ Who lives to fancy, never can be rich." — Young. 
Obs. 19. — What is sometimes used adverbially; as, "Though I forbear, 
what am I Qu&Q&V—Job, xvi, 6. — That is, how much? or wherein,? "The 



172 ' INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III; 

enemy having his country wasted, what by himself and what by the soldiers, 
findeth succour in no place." — Spenser. Here what means partly, — " wasted 
partly by himself and wrtly by the soldiers." 
Obs. 20. — What is sometimes used as a mere interjection ; as, 

" What! this a sleeve ? 'tis like a demi-cannon." — Shahspeare. 

" What! can you lull the winged winds asleep ? — Campbell. 

NOTES TO RULE V. 

Note I. — A pronoun should not be introduced in connexion 
with words that belong more properly to the antecedent, or to 
an other pronoun ; as, 

" My banks they are furnished with bees." — Shenstone. 

Obs. — This is only an example of pleonasm,' which is allowable and fre- 
quent in animated discourse, but inelegant in any other. [See Pleonasm, in 
part rv.] 

Note II. — A change of number in the second person, is in- 
elegant and improper ; as, " You wept, and I for thee" 

Obs. — Poets have sometimes adopted this solecism, to avoid the harshness 
of the verb in the second person singular ; as, 

" As, in that lov'd Athenian bower, 
You learned an all commanding power, 
Thy mimic soul, nymph endear'd ! 
Can well recall what then it heard."— Collins. 

Note III. — The relative who is applied only to persons, and 
to animals personified ; and which, to brute animals and inani- 
mate things: as, "The judge who presided;" — "The old crab 
who advised the young one ;" — " The horse which ran ;" — " The 
hook which was given me." 

Obs. — Whkh, as well as who, was formerly applied to persons; as, "Our 
Father which art in heaven." — Bible. It may still be applied to a young 
child ; as, " The child which died." — Or even to adults, when they are 
spoken of without regard to a distinct personality or identity ; as, " Which of 
you will go V — " Crabb knoweth not which is which, himself or his parodist." 
■ — Leigh Munt. 

Note IV. — Nouns of multitude, unless they express persons 
directly as such, should not be represented by the relative 
who: to say, "The family whom I visited," would hardly be 
proper; that would here be better. When such nouns are 
strictly of the neuter gender, which may represent them ; as, 
"The committees which were appointed." 

Note V. — A proper name taken merely as a name, or an 
appellative taken in any sense not strictly personal, must be 
represented by which, and not by who ; as, " Herod — which is 
but another name for cruelty." — "In every prescription of 
duty, God proposeth himself as a re warder; which he is only 
to those that please him." — Dr. J. Owen. 

Note VI. — The relative that may be applied either to per- 
sons or to things. In the following cases, it is generally pre- 
ferable to who or which, unless it be necessary to use a prepo- 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX— RULE V.— PRONOUN'S. 173 

eition before the relative: — 1. After an adjective of .the super- 
lative degree, when the relative clause is restrictive ; as, " He 
was the first that came." — 2. After the adjective same, to ex- 
plain its import ; as, " This is the same person that I met be- 
fore." — 3. After the antecedent who ; as, " Who that has com- 
mon sense, can think so ?" — 4. After a joint reference to per- 
sons and things ; as, " He spoke of the men and things that he 
had seen." — 5. After an unlimited antecedent, which the rela- 
tive and its verb are to restrict ; as, " Thoughts that breathe, 
and words that burn." — 6. After an antecedent introduced by 
the expletive it; as, "It is you that command." — "It was 1 
that did it." — 7. And, in general, where the propriety of who 
or which is doubtful ; as, " The little child that was placed in 
the midst." 

Note VII. — When several relative clauses come in succes- 
sion, and have a similar dependence in respect to the antece- 
dent, the same pronoun must be employed in each ; as, " O 
thou who art, and who wast, and who art to come !" — " And 
they shall spread them before the sun, and the moon, and all 
the host of heaven, whom they have loved, and whom they have 
served, and after whom they have walked, and whom they have 
sought, and whom they have worshipped." — Jer., viii, 2. 

Note VIII. — The relative, and the preposition governing it, 
should not be omitted, when they are necessary to give con- 
nexion to the sentence ; as, " He is still in the situation [in 
which] you saw him." 

Note IX. — An adverb should not be used where a preposi- 
tion and a relative pronoun would better express the relation 
of the terms; as, ' ; A cause where [for in which] justice is so 
much concerned." 

Note X. — Where a pronoun or a pronominal adjective will 
not express the meaning clearly, the noun must be repeated, 
or inserted in stead of it. Example : " We see the beautiful 
variety of colour in the rainbow, and are led to consider the 
cause of if [ — that variety]. 

Note XI. — To prevent ambiguity or obscurity, the relative 
should be placed as near as possible to the antecedent. The 
following sentence is therefore faulty : " He is like a beast of 
prey, that is void of compassion." Better : " He that is void 
of compassion, is like a beast of prey." 

Note XII. — The pronoun what should never be used in 
stead of the conjunction that ; as, " He will not believe but 
what I am to blame." What should be that. 

Note XIII. — A pronoun should not be used to represent an 
adjective : because it can neither express a concrete quality aa 

15* 



174 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IIL 

such, nor convert it properly into an abstract. Example: 
" Be attentive ; without which you will learn nothing." Better: 
" Be attentive ; for without attention you will learn nothing." 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE V. — PRONOUNS. 
No person should be censured for being careful of their rep- 
utation. 

[Fokmttle. — Not proper, because the pronoun their is of the plural number, and 
does not correctly represent its antecedent noun person, which is of the third person, 
singular, masculine. But, according to Rule 5th, "A pronoun must agree with its 
antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gen- 
der." Therefore, their should be his : thus, No person should be censured for being 
careful of his reputation.] 

Every one must judge of their own feelings. — Byron. 

Can any person, on their entrance into the world, be fully se- 
cure that they shall not be deceived ? 

He cannot see one in prosperity without envying them. 

I gave him oats, but he would not eat it. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob. 

Take up the tongs, and put it in its place. 

Let each esteem others better than themselves. 

A person may make themselves happy without riches. 

Every man should try to provide for themselves. 

The mind of man should not be left without something on. 
which to employ his energies. 

An idler is a watch that wants both hands, 
As useless if he goes, as when he stands. 

Under Note 1. — Pronouns Wrong or Needless. 
Many words they darken speech. 

These praises he then seemed inclined to retract them. 
These people they are all very ignorant. 
Asa his heart was perfect with the Lord. 
Who, in stead of going about doing good, they are perpetually 

intent upon doing mischief. — Tillotson. 
Whom ye delivered up, and denied him in the presence of 

Pontius Pilate. — Acts, iii, 13. 
Whom, when they had washed, they laid her in an upper 

chamber.— Acts, ix, 37. 
What I have mentioned, there are witnesses of the fact. 
What he said, he is now sorry for it. 
The empress, approving these conditions, she immediately 

ratified them. 
This incident, though it appears improbable, yet I cannot doubt 

the author's veracity. 

Under Note 2. — Change of Number. 
Thou art my father's brother, else would I reprove you. 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX— EXILE V.— PRONOUNS. . 175 

Your weakness is excusable, but thy wickedness is not. 

Now, my son, I forgive thee, and freely pardon your fault. 
You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song, 
Till nobly rises emulous thy own. — Thomson, 

Under Note S.— Of Who and Which. 
This is the horse whom my father imported. 
Those are the birds whom we call gregarious. 
He has two brothers, one of which I am acquainted with. 
What was that creature whom Job called leviathan % 
Those which desire to be safe, should be careful to do that 

which is righto 
A butterfly which thought himself an accomplished traveller, 

happened to light upon a bee-hive. 
There was a certain householder which planted a vineyard. 

Under Note 4. — Nouns of Multitude. 
He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded him. 
The court, who has great influence upon the public manners, 

ought to be very exemplary. 
The wild tribes who inhabit the wilderness, contemplate the 

ocean with astonishment, and gaze upon the starry heavens 

with delight. 

Under Note 5. — Mere Names. 

Judas (who is now another name for treachery) betrayed his 

master with a kiss. 
He alluded to Phalaris, — who is a name for all that is cruel. 

Under Note 6. — That Preferable. 

He was the first who entered. 

He was the drollest fellow whom I ever saw. 

This is the same man whom we saw before. 

Who is she who comes clothed in a robe of green ? 

The wife and fortune whom he gained, did not aid him. 

Men who are avaricious, never have enough. 

All which I have, is thine. 

Was it thou, or the wind, who shut the door 1 

It was not I who shut it. 

The babe who was in the cradle, appeared to be healthy. 

Under Note 7. — Relative Clauses Connected. 

He is a man that knows what belongs to good manners,, and. 

who will not do a dishonourable act. 
The friend who was here, and that entertained us so much, will 

never be able to visit us again. 



176 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAR v 111 

The curiosities which he has brought home, and that we shall 
have the pleasure of seeing, are said to be very rare. 

Under Note 8. — Relative and Preposition, 

Observe them in the order they stand. 
We proceededjmmediately to the place we were directed. 
My companion remained a week in the state I left him. 
The way I do it, is this. 

Under Note 9. — Adverbs for Relatives. 

Remember the condition whence thou art rescued. 

I know of no rule how it may be done. 

He drew up a petition, where he too freely represented his own 

merits, 
The hour is hastening, when whatever praise or censure I have 

acquired, will be remembered with equal indifference. 

Under Note 10. — Repeat the Noun, 

Many will acknowledge the excellence of religion, who cannot 

tell wherein it consists, 
Every difference of opinion is not that of principle. 
Next to the knowledge of God, this of ourselves seems most 

worthy of our endeavour. 

Under Note 11. — Place of the Relative, 

Thou art thyself the man that committed the act, who hast 

thus condemned it. 
There is a certain majesty in simplicity, which is far above the 

quaintness of wit. 
Thou hast no right to judge who art a party concerned. 
It is impossible for such men as those, ever to determine thia 

question, who are likely to get the appointment. 
There are millions of people in the empire of China, whos* 

support is derived almost entirely from rice. 

Under Note 12.— What for That. 

I had no idea but what the story was true. 

The post-boy is not so weary but what he can whistle. 

He had no intimation but what the men were honest. 

Under Note 13. — Adjectives for Antecedents. 

Some men are too ignorant to be humble ; without which 

there can be no docility. — Berkley. 
Judas declared him innocent ; which he could not be, had he 

in any respect deceived the disciples. — Porteus. 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX— RULE VI— PRONOUNS, 177 

Be accurate in all you say or do ; for it is important in all the 
concerns of life. 

Every law supposes the transgressor to be wicked ; which in- 
deed he is, if the law is just. 

EULE VI.— PRONOUNS. 

"When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying 
the idea of plurality, the Pronoun must agree with it in 
the plural number; as, "The council were divided in 
their sentiments." 

OBSERVATION ON RULE VI. 

Most collective nouns of the neuter gender, may take the regular plural 
form, and be represented by a pronoun in the third person, plural, neuter; 
as, " The nations will enforce their laws.''- This construction comes under 
Rule 5th. To Eule 6th there are no exceptions. 

NOTE TO RULE VI. 

A collective noun conveying the idea of unity, requires a 
pronoun in the third person, singular, neuter, agreeably to 
Eule 5th ; as, " The nation will enforce its laws." 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER EULE VI. — PRONOUNS. 
The jury will be confined till it agrees on a verdict. 

[Formule. — Not proper, because the pronoun it is of the singular number, and doea 
not correctly represent its antecedent jury, which is a collective noun, conveying the 
idea of plurality. But, according to Rule 6th, " When the antecedent is a collective 
noun conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree Avith it in the plural 
number." Therefore, it should be they; thus, The jury will be confined till they 
agree on a verdict.] 

In youth, the multitude eagerly pursue pleasure, as if it were 
its chief good. 

The council were not unanimous, and it separated without 
coming to any determination. 

The committee were divided in sentiment, and it referred the 
business to the general meeting. 

There happened to the army a very strange accident, which 
put it in great consternation. 

The enemy were not able to support the charge, and he dis- 
persed and fled. 

The defendant's counsel had a difficult task imposed on it. 

The board of health publish its proceedings. 

I saw all the species thus delivered from its sorrows. 

Under Note to Rule 6th. — The Idea of Unity. 

I saw the whole species thus delivered from their sorrows. 
This court is famous for the justice of their decisions, 
8* 



178 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

The convention then resolved themselves into a committee of 

the whole. 
The crowd was so great that' the judges with difficulty made 

their way through them. 

RULE VII.— PRONOUNS. 

"When a Pronoun has two or more antecedents con- 
nected by and, it must agree with them in the plural 
number ; as, u James and John will favour us with their 
company." 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

"When two or more antecedents connected by and, serve merely to describe 
one person or thing; they are in apposition, and do not reqrrire a plural 
pronoun: as, "This great philosopher and statesman continued in public life 
till his eighty-second year. 1 ' — "The same Spirit, light, and life, which en* 
lighteneth, also sanctifieth, and there is not an other." — Penington. 

EXCEPTION SECOND. 

When two antecedents connected by and, are emphatically distinguished ; 
they belong to different propositions, and (if singular) do not require a plu- 
ral pronoun : as, "The butler, and not the oaker, was restored to his office." 
— -'* The good man, and the sinner too, shall have his reward." — "Truth, and 
truth only, is worth seeking for its own sake." 

EXCEPTION THIRD. 

"When two or more antecedents connected by and, are preceded by the 
adjective each, every, or no ; they are taken separately, and do not require a 
plural pronoun : as, "Every plant and every tree produces others after its 
kind." — " It is the original cause of every reproach and distress which has at- 
tended the government." — Junius. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VII. 

Obs. 1. — "When the antecedents are of different persons, the first person is 
preferred to the second, and the second to the third: as, " John, and thou, 
and I, are attached to our country." — " John and thou are attached to your 
country." 

Obs. 2. — The gender of pronouns, except in the third person singular, is 
distinguished only by their antecedents. In expressing that of a pronoun 
which has antecedents of different genders, the masculine should be preferred 
to the feminine, and the feminine to the neuter. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE VII. — PRONOUNS. 
Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance. 

[Formule.— Not proper, because the pronoun itself is of the singular number, and 
does not correctly represent its two antecedents discontent and sorroiv, which are 
connected by ana, and taken conjointly. But, according to Rule 7th, "When a pro- 
noun has two or more antecedents connected by and, it must agree with them in the 
plural number." Therefore, itself should be themselves ; thus, Discontent and sorrow 
manifested themselves in his countenance.] 

Your levity and heedlessness if it continue, will prevent all 

substantial improvement. 
Poverty and obscurity will oppress him only who esteems it 

oppressive. 



CHAP. I.] SYNTAX.— EULE VIII.— PRONOUNS. 179 

Good sense and refined policy are obvious to few, because it 

cannot be discovered but by a train of reflection. 
Avoid haughtiness of behaviour, and affectation of manners : it 

implies a want of solid merit. 
If love and unity continue, it will 2B.tike you partakers of one 

an other's joy. 
Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter : it will destroy, like 

a canker, every germ of friendship. 
Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christian charity : 

guard, therefore, against the slightest indulgence of it. 
Every man is entitled to liberty of conscience, and freedom 

of opinion, if he does not pervert it to the injury of others. 

EULE VIII.— PRONOUNS. 

When a Pronoun has two or more singular antece- 
dents connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in 
the singular number: as, "James or John will favour us 
with his company." 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE VIII. 

Obs. 1. — When a pronoun has two or more 'plural antecedents connected 
"by or or nor, it is of course plural, and agrees with them severally. To the 
foregoing rule, there are properly no exceptions. 

Obs. 2. — When antecedents of different persons, numbers, or genders, are 
connected by or or nor, they cannot be represented by a pronoun that is not 
applicable to each of them. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate : 
" Either thou or /am greatly mistaken in our judgement on this subject." — - 
Murray's Key. But different pronouns may be so connected as to refer to 
Buch antecedents taken separately; as, " By requiring greater labour from 
Buch slave or slaves, than Tie or slie or they are aole to perform.'" — Prince's 
Digest. Or, if the gender only be different, the masculine may involve the 
feminine by implication; as, "If a man smite the eye of his servant or the 
eye of his maid tk&t it perish, he shall let Mm go free for Ms eye's sake."— 
Exodus, xxi, 26. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE VIII. — PRONOUNS. 

Neither wealth nor honour can secure the happiness of their 
votaries. 

[Formtjle.— Not proper, because the pronoun their is of the plural number, and 
does not correctly represent its two antecedents wealth and honour, which are con- 
nected by nor, and taken disjunctively. But, according to Rule 8th, "When a pro- 
noun has two or more singular antecedents connected by or or nor, it must agree 
with them in the singular number." Therefore, their should he its ; thus, Neither 
wealth nor honour can secure the happiness of its votaries.] 

Neither Sarah, Ann, nor Jane, has performed their task. 

One or the other must relinquish their claim. 

A man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which will 

move only as they are moved. 
Rye or barley, when they are scorched, may supply the place 

of coffee. 



180 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III, 

A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well 

as read them in a description. 
Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of 

life, for they may be thy own lot. 

RULE IX.— VERBS. 

A finite Yerb must agree with its subject/ or nomi- 
native, in person and number : as, " I Jcnovj ; thou hwwst, 
or knowest; he knows, or knoweih." — " The birdyfe; the 
birds fly." 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE IX. 

Obs. 1. — To this general rule for the verb, there are properly no exceptions. 
The infinitive mood, having no relation to a nominative, is of course exempt 
from such agreement ; and all the special rules which follow, virtually accord 
with this. 

Obs. 2.— Every finite verb (that is, every verb not in the infinitive mood) 
must have some noun, pronoun, or phrase equivalent, known as the subject 
of the being, action, or passion; and with this subject the verb must agree 
in person and number. 

Obs. 3. — Different verbs always Aave different subjects, expressed or un- 
derstood ; except when two or more verbs are connected in the same con- 
struction, or when the same verb is repeated for the sake of emphasis. 

Obs. 4. — Verbs in the imperative mood, commonly agree with the pronoun 
thou, ye, or you, understood; as, u Do [thou] as thou list." — Shah. "Trust 
God and be doing, and leave the rest with him." — Dr. Sibs. 

Obs. 5. — The place of a verb can have reference only to that of the subject 
with which it agrees, and that of the object which it governs ; this matter is 
therefore sufficiently explained in the observations under Eule 2d and Eule 
20th. 

NOTES TO RULE IX. 

Note I. — " The adjuncts of the nominative do not control 
its agreement with the verb: as, Six months' interest was due." 
• — W. Allen. " The propriety of these rules is evident." — Id. 
" The mill, with all its appurtenances, was destroyed." 

Note II. — The infinitive mood, a phrase, or a sentence, is 
sometimes the subject to a verb : a subject of this kind, how- 
ever composed, if it is taken as one whole, requires a verb in 
the third person singular; as, "To lie is base." — "To see the 
sun is pleasant." — "That you have violated the law, is evident." 
— "For what purpose they embarked, is not yet known." — "How 
far the change would contribute to his welfare, comes to be con- 
sidered." — Blair. 

Obs. 1. — The same meaning will be expressed, if the pronoun it be placed 
before the verb, and the infinitive, phrase, or sentence, after it; as, "It is 
base to lie" — " It is evident that you have violated the law." The construction 
of the following sentences is rendered defective by the omission of the pro- 
noun : " Why do ye that which [it] is not lawful to do on the sabbath days?" 
—Luke, vi, 2. " The show-bread which [it] is not lawful to eat, but for tha 
priests only." — Lvke, vi, 4. 

Obs. 2.— When the infinitive mood is made the subject of a finite verb, it 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— RULE IX— VERBS. 181 

is used to express some action or state in the abstract; as, u To be contents 
his natural desire."— Pope. Here to be stands for simple existence. In con- 
nexion with the infinitive, a concrete quality may also be taken as an ab- 
stract; as, "To be good is to be happy. ,'•' Here good and happy express the 
quality of goodness and the state of happiness, considered abstractly ; and 
therefore these adjectives do not relate to any particular noun. So also the 
passive infinitive, or a perfect participle taken in a passive sense; as, "To 
be satisfied with a little, is the greatest wisdom." — "To appear discouraged, is 
the way to become so." Here the satisfaction and the discouragement are 
considered abstractly, and without reference to any particular person. 

Obs. 3. — When the action or state is to be limited to a particular person or 
thing, the noun or pronoun ' may be introduced before the infinitive, by tho 
preposition, for; as, "For a prince to be reduced by villany to my distressful 
circumstances, is calamity enough." — Tr. of Sallust. 

Note III. — A neuter or a passive verb between two nomin 
atives should be made to agree with that which precedes it; 
as, " Words are wind :" except when the terms are transposed, 
and the proper subject is put after the verb by question or 
hyperbaton ; as, " His pavilion were dark waters and thick 
clouds of tho sky ."—Bible. "Who art thou?"— lb. "The 
wages of sin is death." — lb. 

Note IV. — When the verb has different forms, that form 
should be adopted, which is the most consistent with present 
and reputable usage in the style employed : thus, to say fa 
miliarly, "The clock hath stricken" — "Thou laughedst and talk, 
edst, when thou oughtest to have been silent," — " He readeth 
and writeth, but he doth not cipher," — would be no better, 
than to use don't, won't, canH, shan't, and didn't, in preaching. 

Note V. — Every finite verb not in the imperative mood, 
should have a separate nominative expressed ; as, U I came, 1 
saw, I conquered :" except when the verb is repeated for the 
sake of emphasis, or connected to an other in the same con- 
struction; as, 

" They bud, blow, wither, fall, and die" — Watts. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE IX. — VERBS. 
You was kindly received. 

[Formule.— Not proper, because the passive verb was received is of the singula* 
number, and does not agree with its nominative you, which is of the second person, 
plural. But, according to Eule 9th, "A finite verb must agree with its subject, or 
nominative, in person and number.'" Therefore, was receded should be were r#» 
ceived; thus, Tou were kindly received.] 

We was disappointed. 
She dare not oppose it. 
His pulse are too quick. 
Circumstances alters cases. 
He need not trouble himself. 
Twenty-four pence is two shillings. 
On one side was beautiful meadows. 
He may pursue what studies he please. 

1G 



182 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART ITL 

What have become of our cousins 1 

There was more impostors than one. 

What says his friends on this subject 1 

Thou knows the urgency of the case. 

What avails good sentiments with a bad life ? 

Has those books been sent to the school ? 

There is many occasions for the exercise of patience.. 

What sounds have each of the vowels % 

There were a great number of spectators. 

There are an abundance of treatises on this easy science. 
While ever and anon there falls 
Huge heaps of hoary moulder'd walls. — Dyer. 

He that trust in the Lord, will never be without a friend. 

Errors that originates in ignorance, is generally excusable. 

Be ye not as the horse, or as the mule, which have no under- 
standing. 

Not one of the authors who mentions this incident, is entitled 
to credit. 

The man and woman that was present, being strangers to him, 
wondered at his conduct. 

There necessarily follows from thence these plain and unques- 
tionable consequences. 

O thou, for ever present in my way, 
Who all my motives and my toils survey. 

Under Note 1. — Nominatives with Adjuncts. 
The derivation of these words are uncertain. 
Four years' interest were demanded. 
One added to nineteen, make twenty. 
The increase of orphans render the addition necessary. 
The road to virtue and happiness, are open to all. 
The ship, with all her crew, were lost. 
A round of vain and foolish pursuits, delight some folks. 

Under Note 2. — Composite Subjects. 
To obtain the praise of men, were their only object. 
To steal and then deny it, are a double sin. 
To copy and claim the writings of others, are plagiarism. 
To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of all 

men. 
That it is our duty to promote peace and harmony among 

men, admit of no dispute. 

Under Note 3. — Verb between Nominatives, 
The reproofs of instruction is the way of life. 
A diphthong are two vowels joined in one syllable. 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— RULE IX.— VERBS. 183 

So great an affliction to him was his wicked sons. 
What is the latitude and longitude of that island ? 
He churlishly said to me, " Who is you V 

Under Note 4. — Adapt Form to Style, 

1. For the Familiar Style. 
Was it thou that buildedst that house % 
That boy writeth very elegantly. 

Couldest not thou write without blotting thy book ? 

Thinkest thou not it will rain to-day ? 

Doth not your cousin intend to visit you % 

That boy hath torn my book. 

Was it thou that spreadest the hay 1 

Was it James or thou that didst let him in ? 

He dareth not say a word. 

Thou stoodest in my way and hinderedst me. 

2. For the Solemn Style. 

The Lord has prepar'd his throne in the heavens ; and his king- 
dom rules over all. 

Thou answer'd them, O Lord our God : thou was a God that 
forgave them, though thou took vengeance of their inventions. 

Then thou spoke in vision to thy Holy One, and said — 

So then it is not of him that wills, nor of him that runs, but of 
God that shows mercy. 

Under Note 5. — Express the Nominative. 

New York, Fifthmonth 3d, 1823. 
Dear friend, Am sorry to hear of thy loss ; but hope it may- 
be retrieved. Should be happy to render thee any assist- 
ance in my power. Shall call to see thee to-morrow morn- 
ing. Accept assurances of my regard. A. B. 

New York, May 3d, P. M., 1823. 
Dear sir, Have just received the kind note favoured me with 
this morning ; and cannot forbear to express my gratitude 
to you. On further information, find have not lost so much 
as at first supposed ; and believe shall still be able to meet 
all my engagements. Should, however, be happy to see 
you. Accept, dear sir, my most cordial thanks. C. D. 

Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, 

And never, never be to Heaven resign'd 1 — Pope, 

EULE X.— VERBS. 

When the nominative is a collective noun conveying 



184 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

the idea of plurality, the Verb must agree with it in the 
plural number; as, -'The council were divided. 

OBSERVATION ON RULE X. 

To this rule there are no exceptions. Whenever the collective noun con- 
vey? the idea of plurality without the form, the verb is to be parsed by Rule 
loth; but if the nominative conveys the idea of unity or takes the plural 
form the verb is to be parsed by Rule 9th. The only dimculty is, to deter- 
rmne in what sense the noun should be taken. £™ d fSTOnhl!o at 
verb is commonly adopted wherever it is admissible ; as, « The public a?* 
Informed,"-"'!!^ plaintiff's counsel are of opinion,"-" The committee wers 



% v 
instructed. 



NOTE TO RULE X. 

A collective noun conveying the idea of unity, requires a 
verb in the third person, singular ; and generally admits also 
the regular plural construction : as, " His army tvas defeated. 
" His armies were defeated.'''' 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE X. — VERBS. 
The people rejoices in that which should cause sorrow. 

rFoRMXJLE.— Not proper, because the verb rejoices is of the singular number, and 
does not correctly agree with its nominative people, which is a collective noun con- 
vevin« the idea of plurality. But, according to Eule 10th, " When the nomina ive « 
Icollective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it in the 
Slum? numberV" Therefore, rejoices should be rejoice; thus, The people rejoice m 
that which should cause sorrow.] 

The nobility was assured that he would not interpose. 

The committee has attended to their appointment. 

Mankind was not united by the bonds of civil society. 

The majority was disposed to adopt the measure. 

The peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use 

of wooden shoes. 
All the world is spectators of your conduct. 
Blessed is the people that know the joyful sound. 

Under Note to Rule 10.— The Idea of Unity. 

The church have no power to inflict corporal punishments. 
The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. 
The meeting have established several salutary regulations. 
The regiment consist of a thousand men. 
A detachment of two hundred men were immediately sent. 
Every auditory take this in good part. 
In this business, the house of commons were of no weight. 
Are the senate considered as a separate body % 
There are a flock of birds. 

No society are chargeable with the disapproved conduct of 
particular members. 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX. — EULE XI.— VERBS. 185 

RULE XL— VERBS. 

"When a Yerb lias two or more nominatives connected 
by and, it must agree with them in the plural number : 
as, 

" Judges and senates have been bought for gold, 
Esteem and love were never to be sold." — Pope. 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

When two or more nominatives connected by and, serve merely to describe 
one person or thing ; they are in apposition, and do not require a plural 
verb : as, " This philosopher and poet was banished from his country." — "Toll, 
tribute, and custom, was paid unto them." — Ezra, iv, 20. 
M Whose icy current and compulsive course 
"Rtf qx feets retiring ebb, but keeps due on." — Shakspeare. 

EXCEPTION SECOND. 

When two nominatives connected by and, are emphatically distinguished ; 
they belong to different propositions, and (if singular) do not require a plural 
verb: as, "Ambition, and not the safety of the state, was concerned.'''' — Gold 
smith. 

u Ay, and no too, was no good divinity." — ShaTcspeare. 

"Zealand love only, is the loan for love." — Young. 

EXCEPTION THIRD. 

When two or more nominatives connected by and, are preceded by the 
adjective each, every, or no; they are taken separately, and do not require a 
plural verb : as, " When no part of their substance, and no one of their prop- 
erties, is the same." — Butler. " Every limb and feature appears with %U 
respective grace." — Steele. 

EXCEPTION FOURTH. 

When the ver T > separates its nominatives, it agrees with that which pre- 
cedes it, and is understood to the rest ; as, 

"■ Forth in the pleasing spring, 

Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness, and love." — Thomson. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XI. 

Oes. 1. — The conjunction is sometimes understood ; as, 

il Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doomed." — Beattie. 

Obs. 2. — In Greek and Latin, the verb frequently agrees with the nearest 
nominative, and is understood to the rest ; and this construction is some- 
times improperly imitated in Englkh: as, "N?w hi MENEI irions, eXn-ij. dyinrri, 
ra ryia raura." — " Nunc vero manet fides, spes, charitas ; tria hsec." — " Now 
abideth faith, hope, charity; these three." — 1 Cor., xiii, 13. 
1 Obs. 3. — When the nominatives are of different persons, the verb agree3 
witli the first person in preference to the second, and with the second in 
preference to the third ; for thou and /(or he, thov, and I) are equivalent to 
we; and thou and he axe equivalent to you; as, "Why speakest thou any 
more of thy matters ? I have said, thou and Ziba di/vide the land." — 2 Sam., 
xix, 29. I. e., " divide ye the land." 

NOTES TO RULE XI. 

Note I. — When two subjects or antecedents are connected, 
one of which is taken affirmatively, and the other negatively, 

16* 



186 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

they belong to different propositions ; and the verb or pronoun 
must agree with the affirmative subject, and be understood to 
the other : as, " Diligent industry, and not mean savings, pro- 
duces honourable competence."—' 4 Not a loud voice, but strong 
proofs bring conviction.' ' 

Note II. — When two subjects or antecedents are connected 
by as-well-as, but, or save, they belong to different proposi- 
tions; and, (unless one of them is preceded by the adverb 
not,) the verb and pronoun must agree with the former and 
be understood to the latter : as, " Veracity, as well as justice, 
is to be our rule of life." — Butler. " Nothing, but wailings, 
was heard. — " None, but thou, can aid us." — " No mortal man 
save he, &c, had e'er survived to say he saw." — W. Scot' 

Obs. 1. — The conjunction as, when it connects nominatives that are in ap- 
position, is commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, so that the 
verb agrees with its proper nominative following the explanatory word ; 
thus, "As a poet, he holds a high rank." —Murray. But when this conjunc- 
tion denotes a comparison between two nominatives, there must be two verbs 
expressed or understood, each agreeing with its own subject ; as, " Such, 
writer® as he [is] have no reputation among the learned." 

Obs. 2. — Some grammarians say that but and save, when they denote ex- 
ception, should govern the objective case, as prepositions ; but this is not ac- 
cording to the usage of the best authors. The objective case of nouns being 
like the nominative, the point can be proved only by the pronouns ; as, 
" There is none but he alone." — Perkinses Theology, 1608. "There is none 
other bd, he." — Mark, xii, 32. (This text is gcod authority as regards the 
case, though it is incorrect in an other respect : it should have been, " There 
is none but he," or, " There is no other than Tie.") " JS T o man hath ascended 
up to heaven, b ut he that came down from heaven." — John, iii, 13. "Not 
that any man hath seen the Father, save he which is of God." — John, vi, 46. 
" Few can, save he and Z" — Byron's Werner. "There is none justified, but 
Tie that is in measui'e sanctified." — Penington. Save, as a conjunction, is 
nearly obsolete. In Rev., ii, 17, we read, " Which no man knoweth, saving 
lie that receiveth it." 

Note III. — When two or more subjects or antecedents are 
preceded by the adjective each, every or no, they are taken 
separately, and require a verb and pronoun in the singular 
number: as, 

"And every sense, and every heart is joy."— Thomson. 
" Each beast, each insect, happy in its own." — Pope. 
Note IV. — When words are to be taken conjointly as sub- 
jects or antecedents, the conjunction and must connect them. 

Obs. — In Latin, cum -with, an ablative, sometimes has the force of the con- 
junction et with a nominative ; as, " Dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur." 
— Livy. In imitation of this construction, some JSnglish writers have sub- 
Btituted. with for and, and varied the verb accordingly; as, "Along course 
of time, with a variety of accidents and circumstances, are requisite to pro- 
duce these revolutions." — Hume. But, as the preposition makes its object 
only an adjunct of the preceding noun, this construction cannot be justified. 

Note V. — Two or more distinct subject phrases connected 
by and, require a plural verb : as, " To be wise in our own eyes t 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX. — RULE XI. — VERBS. 181 

to be wise in the opinion of the world, and to be wise in the sight 
of our Creator, are three things so very different, as rarely to 
coincide. " — Blair. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XI. — TERBS. 
Industry and frugality leads to wealth. 

[Formttle. — JNot proper, because the verb leads is in the singular number, and does 
not correctly agree with its two nominatives, industry and frugality, which are con- 
nected by and, and taken conjointly. But, according to Rule 11th, " When a verb has 
two or more nominatives connected by and, it must agree with them in the plural 
number." Therefore leads should be" lead ; thus, Industry and frugality lead to 
wealth.] 

Temperance and exercise preserves health. 

Time and tide waits for no man. 

My love and affection towards thee remains unaltered. 

Wealth, honour, and happiness, forsakes the indolent* 

My flesh and my heart faileth. 

In all his works, there is sprightliness and vigour. 

Elizabeth's meekness and humility was extraordinary. 

In unity consists the security and welfare of every society. , 

High pleasures and luxurious living begets satiety. 

Much does human pride and folly require correction. 

Our conversation and intercourse with the world is, in several 

respects, an education for vice. 
Occasional release from toil, and indulgence of ease, is what 

nature demands, and virtue allows. 
What generosity, and what humanity, was then displayed ! 

What thou desir'st, 

And what thou fearst, alike destroys all hope. 

Under Note 1. — Affirmation with Negation. 
Wisdom, and not wealth, procure esteem. 
Prudence, and not pomp, are the basis of his fame. 
Not fear, but labour have overcome him. 
The decency, and not the abstinence, make the difference. 
Not her beauty, but her talents attracts attention. 
It is her talents, and not her beauty, that attracts attention. 
It is her beauty, and not her talents, that attract attention. 

Under Note 2. — As Well As, But, or Save. 
His constitution, as well as his fortune, require care. 
Their religion, as well as their manners, were ridiculed. 
Every one, but thou, hadst been legally discharged. 
The buyer, as well as the seller, render themselves liable. 
All songsters, save the hooting owl, was mute. 
None, but thou, O mighty prince ! canst avert the blow. 
Nothing, but frivolous amusements, please the indolent. 
Csesar, as well as Cicero, were admired for their eloquence. 



188 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

Under Note 3. — Each, Every, or No; 

Each day, and each hour, bring their portion of duty. 
Every house, and even every cottage, were plundered. 
Every thought, every word, and every action, will be brought 

into judgement, whether they be good or evil. 
The time will come, when no oppressor, no unjust man, will 
be able to screen themselves from punishment. 
No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride, 
No cavern'd hermit, rest self-satisfied. 

Under Note 4. — And Required, 

In this affair, perseverance with dexterity were requisite. 

Town or country are equally agreeable to me. 

Sobriety with humility lead to honour. 

The king, with the lords, and the commons, compose the 

British parliament. 
The nian with his whole family are dead. 
A small house in addition to a trifling annuity, are still granted 

him. 

Under Note 5. — Distinct Subject Phrases. 

To profess, and to possess, is very different things. 

To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with God, is 

duties of universal obligation. 
To be round or square, to be solid or fluid, to be large or 

small, and to be moved swiftly or slowly, is all equally 

alien from the nature of thought. 

EULE XII.— VERBS. 

When a Verb has two or more singular nominatives 
connected by or or nor, it must agree with them in the 
singular number : as, " Fear or jealousy affects him." 

OBSERVATION ON RULE XII. 

To this rule there are properly no exceptions. But in the learned languages, 
a plural verb is often employed with singular nominatives thus connected , 
as, 

" Tuno nee mens mihi, nee color 
Certa sede manentP — Horace. 
And the best scholars have sometimes improperly imitated this construo- 
tion in English ; as, 

" He comes — nor want nor cold his course delay ; 
Hide, blushing Glory 1 hide Pultowa's day." — Dr. Johnson. 

NOTES TO RULE XII. 

Note I. — When a verb has nominatives of different persons 
or numbers, connected by or or nor, it must agree with that 






CHAP, II.] SYNTAX. — RULE XII. — VERBS. 189 

which is placed next to it, and be understood to the rest, in 
the person and number required ; as, " Neither he nor his 
brothers were there." — " Neither you nor I am concerned."-— 
"That neither they nor ye also die." — Numb , xviii, 3. 

Obs. 1. — When the latter nominative is parenthetical, the verb agrees with 
the former only; as, "One example (or ten) says nothing against the uni- 
versal opinion.'" — Leigh Hunt. " Ana we (or future ages) may possibly ham 
a proof of it." — Bp. Butler. 

Obs. 2. — When the alternative is merely in the words, not in the thought, 
the terms are virtually in apposition, and the principal nominative alb no 
controls the verb ; but there is always a harshness in this mixture of differ- 
ent numbers: as, " A parathesis, or brackets, consists of two angular strokes, 
or hooks, enclosing one or more words." — Whiting. " To show us that our 
own schemes, or prudence, have no share in our advancements." — Addison. 
" The Mexican figures, or picture-writing, represent things, not words; they 
exhibit images' to the eye, not ideas to the understanding." — Murray's 
Gram., p. 243. 

Note II. — But when the nominatives require different forms 
of the verb, it is in general more elegant to express the verb, 
or its auxiliary, in connexion with each of them^j as, " Either 
thou art to blame, or I am" — " Neither were their numbers, 
nor was their destination known." 

Note III. — The speaker should generally mention himself 
last ; as, " Thou or / must go." — " He then addressed his dis- 
course to my father and me." But in confessing a fault he 
may assume the first place ; as, " / and Robert did it." — M. 
Edgeworth. 

Note IV. — Two or more distinct subject phrases connected 
by or or nor, require a singular verb ; as, " That a drunkard 
should be poor, or that a fop should be ignorant, is not strange." 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XII. — VERBS. 
Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake. 

[Formixle. — Not proper, because the verb' have caused is of the plural number, and 
does not correctly agree with its two nominatives, ignorance and negligence, which 
are connected by or, and taken disjunctively. But, according to Rule 12th, "When a 
verb has two or more singular nominatives connected by or or nor, it must agree 
with them in the singular number." Therefore, have caused should be has caused; 
thus, Ignorance or negligence has caused this mistake.] 

Neither imprudence, credulity, nor vanity, have ever been im- 
puted to him. 

What the heart or the imagination dictate, flows readily. 

Neither authority nor analogy support such an opinion. j 

Either ability or inclination were wanting. 

Redundant grass or heath afford abundance to their cattle. 

The returns of kindness are sweet ; and there are neither hon- 
our, nor virtue, nor utility, in repelling them. 

The sense or drift of a proposition, often depend upon a single 
letter. 



190 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

Under Note 1. — Nominatives that Disagree, 

Neither he nor you was there. 
Either the boys or I were in fault. 
Neither he nor I intends to be present. 
Neither the captain nor the sailors was saved. 
Whether one person or more was concerned in the business, 
does not yet appear. 

Under Note 2. — Complete the Concord, 

Are they or I expected to be there % 

Neither he, nor am I, capable of it. 

Either he has been imprudent, or his associates vindictive. 

Neither were their riches, nor their influence great. 

Under Note 3. — Place of the First Person, 

I and my father were riding out. 

The premiums were given to me and George. 

I and Jane are invited. 

They ought to invite me and my sister. 

We dreamed a dream in one night, I and he. 

Under Note 4. — Distinct Subject Phrases. 

To practise tale-bearing, or even to countenance it, are great 

injustice. 
To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, are contemptible 

perfidy. 

RULE XIIL— VERBS. 

When Yerbs are connected by a conjunction, they 
must either agree in mood, tense, and form, or have 
separate nominatives expressed: as, "He himself held 
the plough, sowed the grain, and attended the reapers."' — ■ 
" She was proud, but she is now humble." 

EXCEPTION. 

Verbs differing in mood, tense, or form, may sometimes agree with tho 
same nominative, especially if the simplest verbs be placed first ; as, 
" What nothing earthly gives or can destroy.' 1 ' 1 — Pope. 
11 Some are, and must be, greater than the rest." — Id. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIII. 

Oes. 1. — When separate nominatives are expressed, distinct sentences are 
formed, and the verbs have not a common construction. Those examples 
which require a repetition of the nominative might be corrected equally well 
by Note 5th to Rule 9th. 

Obs. 2. — Those parts which are common to several verbs, are generally ex- 
pressed to the first, and understood to the rest : as, " Every sincere endea- 
vour to amend shall be assisted, [shall be] accepted, and [shall be] rewarded." 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX. — RULE XIII. — VERBS. 191 

"Honourably do the best you can" [do]. — "He thought aa I did" \tliink\.-~ 
u You have seen it, but I have not" [seen it]. — " If you will go, I will" [go], 

NOTES TO RULE XIII. 

Note I. — The preterit should not be employed to form the 
compound tenses, nor should the perfect participle be used for 
the preterit. Thus: say, "To have gone" — not, "To have 
went;" and, "I did it," — not, "I done it." 

Note II. — Care should be taken, to give every verb its ap- 
propriate form and signification. Thus : say, " He lay by the 
fire," — not, " He laid by the fire ;" — " He had entered into the 
connexion, 1 ' — not, "He was entered into the connexion;" — "I 
would rather stay" — not, " I had rather stay." 

Obs. — Several verbs which resemble each other in form, are frequently 
confounded : as, to Jlee, to jly ; to lay, to lie; to sit, to set ; to fall, to fell; to 
rend, to rent ; to ride, to rid' &c. Some others are often misapplied; as. 
learn, for teach. There are also erroneous forms of some of the compound 
tenses: as, " We will be convinced,'' 1 for, "We shall be convinced ;" — "Iflhad 
have seen him," for, " If I had seen him." All such errors are to be corrected 
by the foregoing note. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XIII. — VERBS. 
They would neither go in themselves, nor suffered others to 
enter. 

rFoRMUXE. — Nofr proper, because the two verbs would go and suffered, which are 
connected without separate nominatives, do not agree in mood. But according to 
Eule 13th, "When verbs are connected by a conjunction, they must either agree in 
mood, tense, and form, or have separate nominatives expressed." The sentence is best* 
corrected by changing suffered to would suffer ; (would understood;) thus, They 
would neither go in themselves, nor suffer others to enter.] 

Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth into the 
mountains, and seeketh that which is gone astray 1 

Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreated thee to forgive 
him'? 

If he understands the business, and attend to it, wherein is he 
deficient ? 

The day is approaching, and hastens upon us, in which we 
must give an account of our stewardship. 

If thou dost not turn unto the Lord, but forget him who re- 
membered thee in thy distress, great will be thy condemna- 
tion. — Barclay. 

There are a few who have kept their integrity to the Lord, and 
prefer his truth to all other enjoyments. 

This report was current yesterday, and agrees with what we 
heard before. 

Virtue is generally praised, and would be generally practised 
also, if men were wise. 

* Errors under this rule may generally be corrected in three ways: 1. By changing 
the first verb, to agree with the second — 2. By changing the second verb, to agree 
with the first— 3. By inserting the nominative. The form preferred, is in the Key. 



192 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PART IIL 

Under Note 1.— Preterits and Participles. 

He would have went with us, if we had invited him. 
They have chose the part of honour and virtue. 
He soon begun to be weary of having nothing to do. 
Somebody has broke my slate. 
I seen him when he done it. 

Under Note 2. — Adapt Form to Sense. 

He was entered into the conspiracy. 
The American planters grow cotton and rice. 
The report is predicated on truth. 
I entered the room and set down. 
Go and lay down, my son. 

With such books, it will always be difficult to learn children to 
read. 

EULE XIV.— PARTICIPLES. 

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are 
governed by prepositions : as, Elizabeth's tutor, at one 
time paying her a visit, found her employed in reading 
Plato." — Hume. 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

A participle sometimes relates to a preceding phrase or sentence, of which 
it forms no part ; as, 

" But ever to do ill our sole delight, 
As being the contrary to his high will." — Milton. 

EXCEPTION SECOND. 

With an infinitive denoting "being or action in the ahstract, a participle is 
sometimes also taken abstractly ; (that is, without reference to any particular 
noun, pronoun, or other subject;) as, " To seem compelled, is disagreeable." 
• — " To keep always praying aloud, is plainly impossible." 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIV. 

Obs. 1. — To this rule there are properly no other exceptions; for we cannot 
agree with Murray that it is strictly correct to make participles in ing the 
subjects or objects of verbs, while they retain the government and adjuncts of 
participles • as, " Not attending to this rule, is the cause of a very common 
error." — Murray's Key. " He abhorred being in debt." — Ibid. " Cavilling 
and objecting upon any subject, is much easier than clearing up difficulties." 
— Bp. Butler. This mixed and erroneous construction of the participle, is a 
great blemish in the style of several English authors. It is at best a useless 
anomaly, which it is always easy to avoid; as, "Inattention to this rule is 
the cause of a very common error.]' — " He abhorred debt.''''—" To cavil and 
object upon any subject is much easier than to clear up difficulties." 

Obs. 2. — The word to which the participle relates, is sometimes under- 
stood ; as, " Granting this to be true, what is to be inferred from it ?" — Mur- 
ray. That is, " I granting this to be true, ask what is to be inferred from 
it?" — "The very chin was, [/,] modestly speaking, [say,] as long as my whole 
face." — Addison. Some grammarians have erroneously taught that such 
participles are put absolute. 



"CHAP. II.] SYNTAX. — RULE XIV. — PARTICIPLES. 193 

Obs. 3. — Participles are almost always placed after the words on which theif 
instruction depends, but sometimes they are introduced before them ; as, 
" Immured in cypress shades, a sorcerer dwells." — Milton. 

NOTES TO RULE XIV. 

Note I. — Active Participles have the same government as 
the verbs from * "which they are derived; the preposition of 
therefore, should never be used after the participle, when the 
verb does not require it. Thus, in phrases like the following, 
efis improper : " Keeping of one day in seven," — " By preach- 
ing of repentance," — " They left beating o/*Paul." 

Obs. — When participles are compounded with something that does not ba- 
long to the verb, they become adjectives/ and, as such, they cannot govern 
an object after them. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate: 
"When Caius did any thing unbecoming his dignity." — Jones's Ghurcli His- 
tory. Such errors are to be corrected either by Note 15th to Rule 4th, or by 
changing the particle prefixed; as, " Unbecoming to his dignity," or, "Not 
becorning his dignity," 

Note II, — When a transit . e participle is converted into a. 

noun, of must be inserted to govern the object following. 

Obs. 1. — An imperfect or a compound participle, preceded by an article, 
an adjective, or a noun or pronoun of the possessive case, becomes a verbal 
noun; and, as such, it cannot govern an object after it. A word which may 



toping 

idols,— or, By worshiping idols, they Binned." 2."* The Verbal Noun : " The 
worshiping of iilols, — Such worshiping of idols, — or, Their worshiping of idols, 
was sinful." — u In the worshiping of idols, there is sin." 

Obs. 2. — When the use ot the preposition produces ambiguity or harsh- 
ness, the expression must be varied. Thus, the sentence, u He mentiona 
Newton's writing of a commentary," is both ambiguous and awkward. If 
the preposition be omitted, the word writing will have a double construc- 
tion, which is inadmissible. Some would say, "He mentions Newton writing 
acommentary." This is still worse ; because it makes the leading word in 
sense the adjunct in construction. The meaning may be correctly expressed 
thus : " He mentions that Newton wrote a commentary." " By his studying 
the Scriptures, he became wise." Here his serves only to render the sen- 
tence incorrect : all such possessives are to bo expunged by Note 5th to Rub 
19th. 

Obs. 3. — We sometimes find a participle that takes the same case after as 
before it, converted into a verbal noun, and the latter word retained un- 
changed in connexion with it ; as, " I have some recollection of his father's 
being a judge." — " To prevent its being a dry detail of terms."— Buck. The 
noun after the verbal, is in apposition with the possessive going before. 
Nouns that are in apposition with the possessive case, do not admit the pos- 
sessive sign. But the above-mentioned construction is anomalous, and per- 
haps it would be better to avoid it; thus: " I have some recollection thai 
his father was a judge." — " To prevent it from being a dry detail of terms." 

Obs. 4. — The verbal noun should not be accompanied by any adjuncts of 
the verb or participle, unless they be taken into composition ; as, " The 
hypocrite's hope is like the givmg-up of the ghost." The following phrase 
is therefore inaccurate : " For the more easily reading of large numbers." 
Yet if we say, " For reading large numbers the more easily" the construc- 
tion ia different, and not inaccurate. 

Note III. — A participle should not be used where the infin- 



194 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [P ART III. 

itive mood, the verbal noun, a common substantive, or a 
phrase equivalent, will better express the meaning. 

Obs. 1. — Participles that have become nouns, maybe used as such with or 
■without the article ; as, spelling, reading, writing, drawing. But we some- 
times find those which retain the government and the adjuncts of participles, 
used as nouns before or after verbs ; as, "Exciting such disturbances, is un- 
lawful." — " Rebellion is rising against government." This mongrel construc- 
tion is liable to ambiguity, and ought to be avoided. The infinitive mood, 
the verbal or some other noun, or a clause introduced by the conjunction 
that, will generally express the idea in a better manner ; as, u To excite such 
disturbances, — The exciting of such disturbances, — The excitation of such, dis- 
turbances,— or, That one should excite such disturbances, is unlawful." 

Obs. 2. — After verbs signifying to persevere or to desist, the participle in 
ing, relating to the nominative, may be used in stead of the infinitive con- 
nected to the verb; as ; " So when they continued asking him." — John, viii, 
7. Here continued is intransitive, and asking relates to they. Greek, 'Jlj 61 
ii:in£vov ipwToJvjeg airdv. Latin, " Cum ergo perse verarent interrogantes evim." 
But in sentences like the following, the participle seems to be improperly 
made the object of the verb : "I intend doing it." — "I remember meeting 
him." Better, " I intend to do it." — " I remember to have met him." Verbs 
do not govern participles. 

Obs.' 3. — After verbs of beginning, omitting, and avoiding, some writers 
employ the participle in English, though the analogy of general grammar 
evidently requires in such cases the infinitive or a noun ; as, " It is now 
above three years since he hegan printing" — Dr. Adam's Pref. to Rom. An- 
tiquities. "He omits giving an account of them." — Tooke'sDiv. of Purley, 
Vol. i, p. 251. " He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely."— 
Murray's Gram., 8vo, Vol. i, p. 194. If these examples are good English, (for 
the point is questionable,) the verbs are all intransitive, and the participles 
relate to the nominatives going before, as in the text quoted in the preceding 
observation. But Murray, not understanding this construction, or not ob- 
serving what verbs admit of it, has very unskillfully laid it down as a rule, 
that, "The participle with its adjuncts, may be considered as a substantive 
phrase in the objective case, governed by the preposition or verb ;" whereas 
he himself, on the preceding page, had adopted trom Loivth a different doc- 
trine, and cautioned the learner against treating words in ing, " as if they 
were of an amphibious species, partly nouns and partly verbs f that is, "partly 
nouns and partly participles ;" for, according to Murray, participles are verbs. 
The term " substantive phrase 1 " 1 is a solecism, invented merely to designate 
this anomalous construction. Copying Lowih again, he defines a phrase to 
be "two or more words rightly put together;" and whatsoever words are 
rightly put together, may be regularly parsed. But how can one indivisible 
word be made two different parts of speech at once ? And is not this the 
situation of every transitive participle that is made either the subject or the 
object of a verb ? Adjuncts never alter either the nature or the construction 
of the words on which they depend ; and participial nouns always differ 
from participles in both. The former express actions as things • the latter 
attribute them to their agents or recipients. 

Note IV. — In the use of participles and of verbal nouns, the 
leading word in sense, should always be made the leading or 
governing word in the construction. 

Obs. — A participle construed after the nominative or the objective case, is 
not equivalent to a verbal noun governing the possessive. There is some- 
times a nice distinction to be observed in the application of these two con- 
structions. For the leading word in sense should not be made the adjunct 
in construction. The following sentences exhibit a disregard to this prin- 
ciple, and are both inaccurate : " He felt his strength's declining." — " He was 
sensible of his strength declining." In the former sentence the noun strength 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX. — RULE XIV. — PARTICIPLES. 195 

fcbould "be in the objective case, governed bj/elt; and in the latter, in tha 
possessive, governed by declining. 

Note V. — Participles, in general, however construed, should 
have a clear reference to the proper subject of the being, action, 
or passion. The following sentence is therefore faulty : " By 
giving way to sin, trouble is encountered." This suggests that 
trouble gives way to sin. It should be, " By giving way to sin, 
we encounter trouble." 

Nots VI. — The preterit of irregular verbs should not be 
used for the perfect participle : as, " A certificate wrote on 
parchment" — for, " A certificate written on parchment." This 
error should be carefully avoided. 

Note VII. — Perfect participles being variously formed, care 
should be taken to express them agreeably to the best usage : 
thus, earnt, snatcht, check t, snapt, mixt, tost, are erroneously 
written for earned, snatched, checked, snapped, mixed, tossed ; 
and holden,foughten, proven, are now mostly superseded by held y 
fought, proved. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XIV. — PARTICIPLES. 
Examples under Note 1. — Expunge Of. 
In forming of his sentences, he was very 3xact. 

[Formttle. — Not proper, because the preposition of is used after the participle, form- 
ing, whose verb does not require it. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 14th, 
"Participles have the same government a3 the verbs from which they are derived ; 
the preposition of therefore, should not be used after the participle, when the verb 
does not require it." Therefore, of should be omitted ; thus, in forming his sentences, 
he was very exact.] 

By observing of truth, you will command respect. 

I could not, for my heart, forbear pitying of him. 

I heard them discussing of this subject. 

By consulting of the best authors, "he became learned. 

Here are rules, by observing of which, you may avoid error. 

Under Note 2. — Insert Of. 
Their consent was necessary for the raising any supplies. 
Thus the saving a great nation devolved on a husbandman. 
It is an overvaluing ourselves, to decide upon every thing. 
The teacher does not allow any calling ill names. 
That burning the capitol was a wanton outrage. 
May nothing hinder our receiving so great a good. 
My admitting the fact will not affect the argument. 
Cain's killing his brother, originated in envy. 

Under Note 3. — Change the Expression. 
Csesar carried off the treasures, which his opponent had ne» 
leeted taking with him. — Goldsmith. 



196 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PARTIIL 

It is dangerous playing with edge tools. 
I intend returning in a few days. 
Suffering needlessly is never a duty. 
Nor is it wise complaining. — Coioper. 
I well remember telling you so. 
Doing good is a Christian's vocation. — H. More, 
Piety is constantly endeavouring to live to God. It is earnest, 
ly desiring to do his will, and not our own. — Id. 

Under Note 4. — The Leading Word. 

There is no harm in women knowing about these things. 
They did not give notice of the pupil leaving. 
The sun's darting his beams through my window, awoke me. 
The maturity of the sago tree is known bv the leaves being 
covered with a delicate white powder. 

Under Note 5. —Reference xrf Participles. 

Sailing up the river, the whole town may be seen. 

Being conscious vf guilt, death becomes terrible. 

By yielding to temptation, our peace is sacrificed. 

In loving our enemies, no man's blood is shed. 

By teaching the young, they are prepared for usefulness. 

Under Note 6. — Preterits for Participles. 

A nail well drove will support a great weight. 
See here a hundred sentences stole from my work. 
I found the water entirely froze, and the pitcher broke. 
Being forsook by my friends, I had no other resource. 

Under Note 7. — Form of Participles. 

Till by barbarian deluges o'erflown. 

Like the lustre of diamonds sat in gold. 

k. beam ethereal, sullied and absorpt. 

With powerless wings around them wrapt. 

Error learnt from preaching, is held as sacred truth. 

EULE XV.— ADVERBS. 

Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or 
other adverbs: as, "Any passion that habitually discom- 
poses our temper, or "unfits us for properly discharging 
the duties of life, has most certainly gained a very danger- 
ous ascendency." — Blair. 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

'I'he adverbs yes and yea, expressing a simple affirmation, and the adverbs 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX. — RULE XV. — ADVERBS. 197 

no and nay, expressing a simple negation, are always independent. They 
generally answer a question, and are equivalent to a whole sentence. Is it 
clear, that they ought to be called adverbs t No 

EXCEPTION SECOND. 

The word amen, which is commonly called an adverb, is often used inde- 
pendently at the beginning or end of a declaration or prayer ; and is itself a 
prayer, meaning, so let it he. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XV. 

Obs. 1. — On this rule Dr. Adam remarks, "Adverbs sometimes likewise 
qualify substantives;" and gives Latin examples of the following import : 
" Homer plainly an orator ;" — "Truly Metellus ;" — "To-morrow morning ;"— ■ 
"Yesterday morning." But this doctrine is not well proved by such imper- 
fect phrases, nor can it ever be consistently admitted ; because it destroys 
the characteristic difference between an adjective and an adverb. 

Obs. 2.— Whenever any of those words which are commonly used adverb- 
ially, are made to relate directly to nouns or pronouns, they must be reckoned 
adjectives, and parsed by Rule 4th; as, "The above* verbs." — Dr. Adam. 
" God only.' 1 '' — Bible. " He alone.'''' — Id. " Afar country." — Id. "No wine, 
— No new thing, — No greater joy." — Id. "Nothing else.'''' — Blair. "To- 
morrow noon." — Scott. " This beneath world." — Shah. " Calamity enough." 
—Tr. of Sallust. " My hither way." 

Obs. 3. — When words of an adverbial character are used after the manner 
of nouns, they must be parsed as nouns and not as adverbs : ad, " The Son of 
God — was not yea and nay, but in him was yea." — Bible. " For a great 
while to come." — Id. " On this perhaps, this peradventure infamous for lies." 
■ — Young. "From the extremest upward of thine head." — Shale. "Prate of 
my whereabout." — Id. " An eternal now does always last." — Cowley. " Dis- 
course requires an animated no." — Cowper. 

Obs. 4. — Adverbs sometimes relate to verbs understood ; as, " The former 
has written correctly; but the latter, elegantly." "And, [I say] truly, if 
they had been mindful of that country from whence they came out, they 
might have had opportunity to have returned." — Ileb., xi, 15. 

Obs. 5. — To abbreviate expressions, and give them vivacity, verbs of self- 
motion (as go, come, rise, get, &c.) are sometimes suppressed, 'being suggested 
to the mind by an emphatic adverb ; as, 

" I'll hence to London on a serious matter." — Shdkspeare. 
"I'll in. I'll in. Follow your friend's counsel. I'll in." — Id. 
"Away old man ; give me thy hand ; away" — Id. 
11 Would you youth and beauty stay, 

Love hath wings, and will aioay." — Waller. 
u Up, up, Glentarkinl rouse thee, ho!" — W. Scott. 

Obs. 6. — Most conjunctive adverbs relate to two verbs at the same time, and 
thus connect the two clauses ; as, " And the rest will I set in order when I 
come." — 1 Cor., xi, 34. Here when is an adverb of time, relating to the two 
verbs, will set and come ; the meaning being, " And the rest will I set in order 
at the time at which I come." 

NOTES TO RULE XV. 

Note I. — Adverbs must be placed in that position which 
will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable. 

* Murray and his copyists strongly condemn this use of above, and we do not eon- 
tend for it; but, both he and they, (as well as others,) have repeatedly employed the 
word in this manner: as, '"The above construction."— Murray's Gram., 8vo, p. 149. 
"The above instances." — p. 202. "The above rule." — p. 270. "In such instances as 
the above."— $. 24. "The same as the above."— p. 66. 

17* 



198 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GKAMMAE. [PART III, 

Obs.—- For the placing of adverbs, no definite general rule can be given, 
Those which relate to adjectives, immediately precede them : and those which 
belong to compound verbs, are commonly placed after the first auxiliary. 

Note II. — Adverbs should not be used as adjectives ; nor 
should they be employed, when quality is to be expressed, and 
not manner : as, " The soonest time ;" — " Thine often infirm- 
ities ;" — " It seems strangely" All these are wrong. 

Note III. — With a verb of motion, most grammarians pre- 
fer hither, thither, and whither, to here, there, and tohere, which 
are in common use, and perhaps allowable, though not so 
good ; as, " Come hither Charles," — or, " Come here. 11 

Note IV. — To the adverbs hence, thence, and whence, the 
preposition from is frequently (though not with strict propriety) 
prefixed. It is w T ell to omit all needless words. 

Note V. — The adverb how should not be used before the 
conjunction that, nor in stead of it ; as, " He said how he would 
go." Expunge how. This is a vulgar error. 

Note VI. — The adverb no should not be used with reference 
to a verb or a participle. Such expressions as, " Tell me whether 
you will go or no," arc therefore improper : no should be not ; 
for " go" is understood after it. 

Obs. — No is sometimes an adverb of degree ; and as such it has this pecu- 
liarity, that it can relate only to comparatives : as, "No more," — "No better," 
■ — "No greater," — "No sooner." When this word is prefixed to a noun, it is 
clearly an adjective, corresponding to the Latin nullus ; as, "No clouds, no 
vapours intervene." — Dyer. 

Note VII. — A negation, in English, admits but one nega- 
tive word: as, "I could not wait any longer," — not, "no 
longer." Double negatives are vulgar. 

Obs. 1. — The repetition of a negative word or clause, strengthens the ne- 
gation ; as, " No, no, no." But two negatives in the same clause, destroy 
the negation, and render the meaning affirmative; as, "Nor did they not 
perceive their evil plight." — Milton. That is, they did perceive it. 

Obs. 2. — Ever and never are directly opposite in sense, and yet they are 
frequently confounded and misapplied even by respectable writers; as "Sel- 
dom, or never, can we expect," &c. — Blair 's Lectures, p. 305. "Seldom, or 
ever, did any one rise," &c. — Ibid., p. 272. Here never is right, and ever is 
wrong. But as the negative adverb applies only to time, ever is preferable 
to never, in sentences like the following: " Now let man reflect but never so 
little on himself."— Burlamaqui, p. 29. "Which will not hearken to the 
voice of charmers, charming never so wisely." — Ps., lviii, 5. For the phraso 
ever so, (which ought perhaps to be written as one word,) is a very common 
expression, denoting degree, however great or small; as, "everso little" — 
"everso wisely." And it seems to be this, and not time, that is intended in 
the last two examples. 

Obs. 3. — By the customary (but faulty) omission of the negative before but, 
that conjunction has acquired the adverbial sense of only ; and it may, when 
used with that signification, be called an adver-b. Thus, the text, " He hath 
not grieved me but in part," [2 Cor., ii, 5,] might drop the negative, and 
Bill! convey the same meaning : " He hath grieved me but in part." 

"Reason itself, but gives it edge and power." — Pope. 
"Born but to die, and reasoning but to err." — I<L 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX. — RULE XV. — ADVERBS. 1D9 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XV. — ADVERBS. 
Examples under Note 1. — The Placing of Adverbs. 
We were received kindly. 

[Formtjle. — Not proper, because the adverb kindly is not in the most suiting 
place. But, according to Note 1st under Rule 15th, "Adverbs must be placed in that 
position which will render the sentence the most perspicuous aud agreeable." The 
sentence will be improved by placiog kindly before received; thus, We were kindly 
received.] 

The work will be never completed. 

We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. 

It is impossible continually to be at work. 

He impertinently behaved to his master. 

The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 

Not only he found her busy, but pleased and happy even. 

Under Rote 2. — Adverbs for Adjectives. 

Give him a soon and decisive answer. 
When a substantive is put absolutely. 
Such expressions sound harshly. 
Such events are of seldom occurrence. 
Velvet feels very smoothly: 

Under Note 3. — Here for Hither, &c. 

Bring him here to me. 

I shall go there again in a few days. 

Where are they all riding in so great haste % 

Under Note 4. — From Hence, dc. 

From hence it appears that the statement is incorrect. 
From thence arose the misunderstanding. 
Do you know from whence it proceeds ? 

Under Note 5. — The Adverb How. 

You see how that not many are required. 

1 knew how that they had heard of his misfortunes. 

He remarked, how time was valuable. 

Under Note 6. — The Adverb No. . 

Know now, whether this be thy son's coat or no. 
Whether he is in fault or no, I cannot tell. 
I will ascertain whether it is so or no. 

Under Note 7. — Double Negatives. 

I will not by no means entertain a spy. 

Nobody never invented nor discovered nothing, in no way to 
be compared with this. 



200 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IIL 

Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise. 
I did not like neither his temper nor his principles. 
Nothing never can justify ingratitude. 

EULE XVI.— CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions connect either words or sentences: as, 
*' Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between me and 
thee, and between my herdmen and thy herdmen ; for 
we are brethren." — Gen., xiii, 8. 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

The conjunction tliat sometimes serves merely to introduce a sentence 
which is made the subject of a verb ; as, "That mind is not matter, is cer- 
tain." 

EXCEPTION SECOND. 

When two corresponding conjunctions occur, in their usual order, the for- 
mer should be parsed as referring to the latter, which is more properly the 
connecting word ; as, "Neither sun nor stars in many days appeared." — Acts, 
xxvii, 20. 

EXCEPTION THIRD. 

Either, corresponding to or, and neither, corresponding to nor or not, are 
sometimes transposed, so as to repeat the disjunction or negation at the end 
of the sentence; as, "Where, then was their capacity of standing, or hi3 
either f — Barclay. "It is not dangerous neithej\'' /! — Bolingbroke. "He is 
very tall, but not too tall neither.' 1 '' — Spectator. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XVI. 

Obs. 1. — Conjunctions that connect particular words, generally join similar 
parts of speech in a common dependence on some other term. Those which 
connect sentences or clauses, commonly unite one to an other, either as an ad- 
ditional affirmation, or as a condition, a cause, or an end. They are placed 
between the terms which they connect, except there is a transposition, and 
then they stand before the dependent term. 

Obs. 2. — Two or three conjunctions sometimes come together; as, 
" What rests, but that the mortal sentence pass V— Milton. 

Obs. 3. — Conjunctions should not be unnecessarily accumulated; as, "But 
and if that evil servant say in his heart." — Matthew, xxiv, 48. Greek, 
'■ E(if 6e un>)b kukos Sov\t>s aai/oj," &c. Here is no and. 

Obs. 4.— The conjunction as often unites words that are in apposition ; as, 
" He offered himself as a, journeyman." [See Obs. 5, Rule xx.] So, likewise, 
when an intransitive verb takes the same case after as before it, by Eule 
xxi ; as, "Johnson soon after engaged as usher in a school." — Murray. "He. 
was employed as usher P This also is a virtual apposition. If after the verb 
"engaged'''' we supply himself, usher becomes objective, and is in apposition 
with the pronoun. 

Obs. 5. — As frequently has the force of a relative pronoun; as, "Avoid 
such as are vicious." "But to as many as received him,".&c. "He then 
read the conditions as follow. 11 _ Here as represents a noun, and is the subject 
of a verb. [See TooMs Diversions of Purley.] But when a clause, or sen- 
tence, is the antecedent, it is better to. consider as a conjunction, and to sup- 
ply the pronoun it ; as, " He is a*sgry, as [it] appears by this letter." 

Obs. 6. — The conjunction that is frequently understood ; as, 

"Thou warnst me [that] I have done amiss."— Scott. 

Obs. 7. — After than or as expressing a comparison, there is usually an el- 



chap.il] syntax.— rule xvl— conjunctions. 203 

lipsis of some word or words. The construction of the words employed may 
be known by supplying the ellipsis; as v "She is younger than I" [am]. — 
" He does nothing who endeavours to do more than [what] is ah owed to 
humanity." — Johnson. " My punishment is greater than [what] I can bear " 
— Bible. 

NOTES TO RULE XVI. 

Note I. — When two terms connected refer jointly to a third, 
they must be adapted to it and to each other, both in sense 
and in form. Thus : in stead of, " It always has, and always 
will be laudable," say, " It always has been, and it always will 
be laudable." 

Note II. — The disjunctive conjunction lest or but, should not 
be employed where the copulative that, would be more proper : 
as, " I feared that I should be deserted ;" not, " lest I should 
be deserted." 

Note III. — After else, other, rather, and all comparatives, the 
latter term of comparison should be introduced by the con- 
junction than: as, "Can there be any other than this'?" — 
Harris. "Is not the life more than meat?" — Bible. 

Note IV. — The words in each of the following pairs, are the 
proper correspondents to each other ; and care should be taken, 
to give them their right place in the sentence. 

1. Though — yet; as, "Though he were dead, yet shall ha 
live." — John, xi, 25. 

2. Whether — or; as, "Whether there be few or many." 

3. Either — or; as, "He was either ashamed or afraid." 

4. Neither — nor ; as, " John the Baptist came neither eating 
bread nor drinking wine." — Luke, vii, 33. 

5. Both — and; as, "I am debtor both to the Greeks and to 
the Barbarians." — Rom., i, 14. 

6. Such — as ; as, "An assembly such as earth saw never." 
— Cowper. 

7. Such — that; with a finite verb following, to express a 
consequence : as, " My health is such that I cannot go." 

8. As — as; with an adjective or an adverb, to express 
equality : as, " The peasant is as gay as he." — Cowper. 

9. As — so ; with two verbs, to express equality or propor- 
tion : as, "As two are to four, so are six to twelve." 

10. So — as; with an adjective or an adverb, to limit the 
degree by comparison : as, " How can you descend to a thing 
so base as falsehood V 

11. So—as; with a negative preceding, to deny equality: 
as, " No lamb was e'er so mild as he." — Langhorne. 

12. So — as ; with an infinitive following, to express a con- 
sequence : as, " These difficulties were so great as to discourage 
age him." 

9* 



202 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [P ART III. 

13. So — that; with a finite verb following, to express a 
consequence : as, " He was so much injured, that he could not 
walk." 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XVI. — CONJUNCTIONS. 

Examples under Note 1. — Two Terms with One. 

The first proposal was essentially different and inferior to the 

second. 

[Formulk— Not proper, becau se the preposition to, is used with joint reference to 
the two adjectives different and inferior, which require different prepositions. But, 
according to Note 1st under Rule 16th, " When two terms connected refer jointly to a 
third, they must be adapted to it and to each other, both in sense and in form." The 
sentence may be corrected thus; The first proposal was essentially different/row tho 
second, and inferior to it] 

He has made alterations and additions to the work. 
He is more bold, but not so wise, as his companion. 
Sincerity is as valuable, and even more so, than knowledge. 
I always have, and I always shall be, of this opinion. 
What is now kept secret, shall be hereafter displayed and 

heard in the clearest light. 
We pervert the noble faculty of speech, when we use it to tho 

defaming or to disquiet our neighbours. 
Be more anxious to acquire knowledge than of showing it. 
The court of chancery frequently mitigates and breaks the 

teeth of the common law. 

Under Note 2. — Lest or But for That. 

We were apprehensive lest some accident had happened. 

I do not deny but he has merit. 

Are you afraid lest he will forget you 1 

These paths and bow'rs, doubt not but our joint hands, 

Will keep from wilderness. — Milton. 

Under Note 3. — Prefer Than. 
It was no other but his own father. 
Have you no other proof except this ? 
I expected something more besides this. 
He no sooner retires but his heart burns with devotion. 
Such literary niching is nothing else but robbery. 

Under Note 4 — Of Correspondents. 

Neither despise or oppose what you do not understand. 

He would not either do it himself nor let me do it. 

The majesty of good things is such, as the confines of them are 

reverend. 
Whether he intends to do so, I cannot tell. 
Send me such articks only, that are adapted to this market. 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— RULE XVII.— PREPOSITIONS. ~ - 203 

As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. 

No errors are so trivial but they deserve correction. 

It will improve neither the mind, nor delight the fancy. 

The one is equally deserving as the other. 

There is no condition so secure as cannot admit of change. 

Do you think this is so good as that ? 

The relations are so obscure as they require much thought. 

None is so fierce that dare stir him up. 

There was no man so sanguine who did not apprehend some 
ill consequence. 

I must be so candid to own that I do not understand it. 

The book is- not as well printed as it ought to be. 
So still he sat as those who wait 
Till judgment speak the doom of fate. — Scott, 

RULE XVII.— PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions show the relations of things : as, " He 
came from Rome to Paris, in the company of many em- 
inent men, and passed with them through many cities." 
- — Analectic Magazine, 

EXCEPTION FIRST. 

The preposition to, before an abstract infinitive, and at the head of a phrase 
"which is made the subject of a verb, has no proper antecedent term of rela- 
tion ; as, "To learn to die, is the great business of life." — Dillwyn. " Never- 
theless, to abide in the flesh, is more needful for you." — St. Paul. "To be 
reduced to poverty, is a great affliction." 

EXCEPTION SECOND. 

The preposition for, when it introduces its object before an infiniiive, and 
the whole phrase is made the subject of a verb, has properly no antecedent 
term of relation; as, "Foi* us to learn to die, is the great business of life." — ■ 
"Nevertheless, for me to abide in the flesh, is more needful for you." — "For 
an old man to "be reduced to poverty, is a very great affliction." 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XVII. 
Obs. 1. — In parsing any ordinary preposition, the learner should name fhs 



two terms of the relation, and apply the foregoing rule. The principle is 
simple and etymological, yet not the less important as a rule of syntax. 
Among tolerable writers, the prepositions exhibit more errors than any other 
equal number of words. This is probably owing to the careless manner in 
which they are usually slurred over in parsing. 

Obs. 2. — If the learner bo at any loss to discover the two terms of relation, 
let him ask and answer two questions ; first, with the interrogative what be- 
fore the preposition, to find the antecedent ; and then, with the same pro- 
noun after the preposition, to find the subsequent term. These questions 
answered according to the sense, will always give the true terms. If one 
term is obvious, find the other in this way • as, " Day unto day uttereth 
speech, and night unto night showeth knowledge." — Psal. What unto day ? 
Ans. "Uttereth unto day, ." What unto night ? Ans. "Showeth unto night, ." 
To parse rightly is to understand rightly ; and what is well expressed/it ia 
a shame to misunderstand or misinterpret. 



204 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

Obs. 3. — When a preposition begins or ends a sentence or clause, the terms 
of relation are transposed; as, "To a studious maw, action is a relief. "-~ 
Burgh. '■'-Science they [the ladies] do not pretend to." — Id. " Until 1 have 
done that which I have spoken to thee of." — Gen., xxviii, 15. 

Obs. 4. — The former or antecedent term of relation may be a noun, an ad- 
jective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, or an adverb : the latter or subsequent 
term may be a noun, a pronoun, a pronominal adjective, an infinitive verb, 
or an imperfect or preperfect participle. The word governed by the prepo- 
sition, is always the subsequent term, however placed. 

Obs. 5. — Both the terms of relation are usually expressed ; though either 
of them may be understood; as, 1. 2he former — " All shall know me, {reck- 
oning] from the least to the greatest." — Heb.,_ viii, 11. [I say] "in a word, 
it would entirely defeat the purpose." — -Blair. 2. The latter — "Opinions 
and ceremonies [which] they would die foe." — Locke. " In [those] who ob- 
tain defence, or who defend." — Pope. 

Obs. 6.— The only proper exceptions to the foregoing rule, are those which 
are inserted above, unless the abstract infinitive used as a predicate is also 
to be excepted ; as, "To reason right, is to submit." — Pope. But here most 
if not all grammarians would say, the verb is, is the antecedent or governing 
term. The relation, however, is not such as when we say, "He is to sub- 
mit ;'■' but, perhaps, to insist on a different mode of parsing these two infini- 
tives, would be a needless refinement. In relation to the infinitive, Dr. 
Adam remarks, that the preposition to is often taken absolutely ; as, " To con- 
fess the truth." — " To proceed." But the assertion is not entirely true ; nor 
are his examples appropriate ; for what he and many other grammarians call 
the infinitive absolute, evidently depends on something understood ; and the 
preposition is surely in no instance indepen dent of what follows it, and is 
therefore never entirely absolute. Prepositions are not to be supposed to 
have no antecedent term, merely because they stand at the head of a sen- 
tence which is made the subject of a verb ; for the sentence itself often con- 
tains that term, as in the following example : "In what way mind acts upon 
matter, is unknown." Here in shows the relation between acts and way; 
because it is suggested, that mind acts in some way." 

Obs. 7. — The preposition (as its name implies) precedes the word which it 
governs. But, m poetry, the preposition is sometimes placed after its object; 
as, 

"Wild Carron's lonely woods among." — Langhorne. 

Obs. 8. — In the familiar style, a preposition governing a relative or an in- 
terrogative pronoun, is often separated from its object, and connected with 
the other term of relation; as, "Whom did he speak to V But it is more 
dignified, and in general more graceful, to place the preposition before the 
pronoun ; as, "To whom did he speak?" 

Obs. 9. — Two prepositions sometimes come together; as, " Lambeth is 
over against Westminster-abbey." — Murray. 

" And from before the lustre of her face." — Thomson. 
"Blows mildew/rom between his shrivel'd lips. 

These should be written as compounds, and taken together in parsing ; for 
if we parse them separately, we must either call the first an adverb, or sup- 
pose some very awkward ellipsis. 

Obs. 10. — Two separate prepositions have sometimes a joint reference to 
the same noun : as, " He boasted of, and contended/br, the privilege." This 
construction is formal, and scarcely allowable, except in the law style. It is 
better to say, "He boasted of the privilege, and contended for it." 

Obs. 11. — The preposition into, expresses a relation produced by motion or 
change ; and in, the same relation, without reference to motion : hence, "to 
xvaNiinto the garden," and, "to walk i?i the garden," are very different. 

Obs. 12. — Between or betwixt is used in reference to two things or parties: 
among or amidst, in reference to a greater number, or to something by which 
an other may be surrounded ; as, 

" Thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear." — Byron. 
" The host between the mountain and the Bhore."— Id„ 



CHAP. II.] SYNTAX.— RULE XVII.— PREPOSITIONS. 205 

a To meditate amongst decay, and stand 
A ruin amidst ruins." — Id. 

NOTES TO RULE XVII 

Note I. — Prepositions must be chosen and employed agree- 
ably to the usage and idiom of the language, so as rightly to 
express the relations intended. 

Note II. — An ellipsis or omission of prepositions is inele- 
gant, except in those phrases in which long and general use 
has sanctioned it. In the following sentence, of is needed. 

" I will not flatter you, 

That all I see in you is worthy love."— Shah 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XVII. — PREPOSITIONS. 
JExamples under Note 1. — Choice of Prepositions* 
Her sobriety is no derogation to her understanding. 

[Formule. — Not proper, because the relation between derogation and understand* 
ing is not correctly expressed by the preposition to. But, according to Note 1st un- 
der Rule 17th, " Prepositions must be chosen and employed agreeably to the usaga 
and idiom of the language, so as lightly to express the relation" *»f^oded." This rela* 
tion would be better expressed by/rom; thus, Her sobriety is u<? derogation from he* 
understanding.] 

She finds a difficulty of fixing her mind. 

This affair did not fall into his cognizance. 

He was accused for betraying his trust. 

There was no water, and he died for thirst. 

1 have no occasion of his services. 

You may safely confide on him. 

I entertain no prejudice to him. 

You may rely in what I tell you. 

Virtue and vice differ widely with each other. 

This remark is founded in truth. 

After many toils, we arrived to our journey's end. 

I will tell you a story very different to that. 

Their conduct is agreeable with their profession. 

Excessive pleasures pass from satiety in disgust. 

I turned into disgust from the spectacle. 

They are gone in the meadow. 

Let this be divided between the three. 

The shells were broken in pieces. 

The deception has passed among every one. 

They never quarrel among each other. 

Amidst every difficulty, he persevered. 

Let us go above stairs > 

1 was at London, when this happened. 

We were detained to home, and disappointed in our walk. 

This originated from mistake. 

IS 



235 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

The Bridewell is situated to the west of the City-Hall, and it 
has no communication to the other buildings. 

I am disappointed of the work ; it is very inferior from what 
I expected. 

Under Note 2. — Omission of Prepositions, 

Be worthy me, as I am worthy you. — Dry den. 
They cannot but he unworthy the care of others. 
Thou shalt have no portion on this side the river. 
Sestos and Abydos were exactly opposite each other. 
Ovid was banished Eome by his patron Augustus. 

RULE XVIII.— INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections have no dependent construction: as, " 01 
let not thy heart despise me.'' — Johnson. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XVIII. 

Obs. 1. — To this rule there are properly no exceptions. Though interjec- 
tions are sometimes uttered in close connexion with other words, yet, being 
mere signs of passion and feeling, they cannot have any strict grammatical 
relation, or dependence according to the sense. Being destitute alike of re- 
lation, agreement, and government, they must he used independently, if 
used at all. 

Obs. 2. — The interjection O is common to many languages, and is fre- 
quently prefixed to nouns or pronouns put absolute by direct address ; as, 
"Arise, Lord; O God, lift up thine liand." — Psalms, x, 12. "O ye of 
little faith !" — Mat., vi, 30. The Latin and Greek grammarians, therefore, 
made this interjection the sign of the vocative case; which is the same as tho 
nominative put absolute by address in English. 

Obs. 3. — " Interjections in English have no government." — LowtTi. When 
a word not in the nominative absolute, follows an interjection, as part of an 
imperfect exclamation, its construction depends on something tmderstood ; 
as, "Ah me!" — thatis, "Ah! |?%me." — "Alas/or them!" — that is, "Alas! 
I sigh for them." — " O for that warning voice !" — that is, " ! how Ilong for 
that warning voice !" — "O ! that they were wise !" — that is, " O ! how I wUh 
that they were wise I" Such expressions, however, lose much of their viva- 
city, when the ellipsis is supplied. 

Obs. 4. — Interjections may be placed before or after a simple sentence, and 
sometimes between its parts ; but they are seldom allowed to interrupt the 
connexion of words closely united in sense. Murray's definition of an inter- 
jection is faulty, and directly contradicted by his example : " O virtue ! how 
amiable thou art !" 



CHAPTER III.— GOVERNMENT. 

Government has respect only to nouns, pronouns, verbs, 
participles, and prepositions; the other five parts of 
speech neither govern nor are governed. The governing 
words, may be either nouns, pronouns, verbs, participles, 



CHAP. III.] SYNTAX.— RULE XIX.— POSSESSIVES. 207 

or prepositions; the words governed are either Jiouns, 
pronouns, verbs, or participles. In parsing, the learner 
must remember that the rules of government are not to 
be applied to the governing words, but to those which 
are governed; and which, for "the sake of brevity, are 
often technically named after the particular form or mod- 
ification assumed ; as, possessives, objectives, same cases, in- 
finitives, gerundives. Taken in this way, none of the 
following rules can have any exceptions. 

Obs. — The Arrangement of words, (which is treated of in tne observations 
on the rules of construction,) is an important part of syntax, in which not 
only the beauty but the propriety of language is intimately concerned, and 
to which particular attention should therefore be paid in composition. But 
it is to be remembered, that the mere collocation of words in a sentence 
never affects the method of parsing them ; on the contrary, the same words, 
however placed, are always to be parsed in precisely the same way, ro long 
as they express precisely the same meaning. In order to show that we have 
parsed any part of an inverted or difficult sentence rightly, we are at Liberty 
to declare the meaning by any arrangement which will make the construc- 
tion more obvious, provided we retain both the sense and all the words un- 
altered ; but to drop or alter any word, is to pervert the text and to mahe a 
mockery of parsing. Grammar rightly learned, enables one to understand 
both the sense and the construction of whatsoever is rightly written ; s.nd he 
who reads what he does not understand, reads to little purpose. With great 
indignity to the muses, several pretenders to grammar have foolishly taught, 
that, " in parsing poetry, in order to come at the meaning of the author, the 
learner will find it necessary to transpose his language." — KirhkawPs Gr., r>. 
166. See also Merchant, Wilcox, Hull, and others, to the same effect. To 
what purpose can he transpose a sentence, who does not first see what it 
means, and how to explain or parse it as it stands 'i 

RULE XIX.— POSSESSIVES. 

A noun or a pronoun in the Possessive case, is gov- 
erned by the name of the thing possessed; as, 
" Theirs is the vanity, the learning thine ; 
" Touch'd by thy hand, again Bome's glories shine." 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XIX. 

Obs. I. — Every possessive is governed by some noun expressed or under- 
stood, except such as (without the possessive sign) are put in apposition 
with others so governed; and for every po°«essive termination there must 
be a separate governing word. The possessive sign may and must be omit- 
ted in certain cases ; but it is never omitted by ellipsis, as Murray errone- 
ously teaches. The four lines of Note 2d below, are sufficient to show, in 
every instance, when it must be used, and when omitted ; but Murray, after 
as many octavo pages on the point, still leaves it undetermined. If a person 
knows what he means to say, let him express it according to the note, and 
he shall not err. 

Obs. 2. — The possessive case generally comes immediately before the gov- 
erning noun; as, "All nature's difference keeps all nature y s peace." — Pope. 
"Lady! be thine [i. e. thy walk] the Ghr istian's walk." — Ch, Observe?', But 
to this general principle there are some exceptions : as, 



208 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III, 

1. When an adjective intervenes ; as, " Flora's earliest smells.'" — Milton., 
11 Of Will's last night's lecture" — Spectator. 

2. When the possession is affirmed or denied ; as, " The book is mine, 
and not John's." But here the governing noun may he supplied in its proper 
place ; and, in some such sentences, it must be, else a pronoun will he the 
only governing word: as, "Ye are Christ's [disciples], and Christ is God's" 
[son].— fit* Paul. 

3. When the case occurs without the sign ; as, "In her brother Absalom's 
house." — Bible. "David and Jonathan's friendship."' — "Adam and Eve's 
morning hymn." — Dr. Ash. " Behold, the heaven, and the heaven of heav- 
ens, is the Lord's thy God." — Deut., x, 14. 

Obs. 3. — Where the governing noun cannot be easily mistaken, it is often 
omitted by ellipsis ; as, " At the alderman's" [house] — " A book of my bro- 
ther's" [books] — " A subject of the emperor's" [subjects]. This is the true 
explanation of all Murray' 's " double genitives ;" for the first noun, being 
partitive, naturally suggests a plurality of the same kind. 

Obs. 4. — When two or more nouns of the possessive form are in any way 
connected, they usually refer to things individually different, but o"f the same 
name ; and, when such is the meaning, the governing noun is understood 
wherever the sign is added without it : as, 

" From Stiles's pocket into Nokes's" [pocket]. — S. Butler. 
"Add Nature's, Custom's, Reason's, Passion's strife." — Pope. 

Ob?. 5. — The possessive sign is sometimes annexed to that part of a com- 
pound name, which is, of itself, in the objective case; as, "The captain-of- 
the-guard's house." — Bible. "The Bard-oJ '-Lomond's lay is done." — Hogg. 
"Of the Ghildren-qf- Israel's half thou shalt take one portion." — Num., xxxi, 
30. Such compounds ought always to be written with hyphens, and parsed 
together as possessives governed in the usual way. The words cannot be ex- 
plained separately. 

Obs. 6. — In the following phrase, the possessive sign is awkwardly added 
to a distinct adjective: "In Henry the Eighth's time." — Walker's Key, In- 
trod. p. 11. Better, "In the time of Henry the Eighth." But, in the fol- 
lowing line, the adjective elegantly takes the sign ; because there is an ellip- 
sis of both nouns : 

" The rich man's joys increase, the poor's decay." — Goldsmith. 

Obs. 7. — To avoid a concurrence of hissing sounds, the s is sometimes 
omitted, and the apostrophe alone retained to mark the possessive singular; 
as, "For conscience' sake." — Bible. " Moses' minister." — Ibid. "Felix' room." 
— Ibid. "Achilles' wrath." — Pope. But the elision should be sparingly in- 
dulged. It is in general less agreeable than the regular form ; as, Hicks' for 
Hicks' s, — Barnes' for Barnes's. 

Obs. 8. — Whatever word or term gives rise to the direct relation of prop- 
erty, and is rightly made to govern the possessive case, must be a n@un— 
must be the name of some substance, quality, state, or action. When there- 
fore other parts of speech assume this relation, they become nouns; as, 
"Against the day of my burying." — John, xii, 7. " Of 'my whereabout." — ■ 
Shah. " The veiy head and front of my offending." — Id. 

Obs 9. — Some grammarians say, that a participle may govern the possess- 
ive case before it, and yet retain the government and adjuncts of a partici- 
ple ; as, " We also properly say, ' This will be the effect of the pupil's com- 
posing frequently.' " — Murray's Gram. " What can be the reason of the 
committee's leaving delayed this business ?" — Murray's Key. This construc- 
tion is faulty, because it confounds the properties of different parts of speech, 
and produces a hybridous class between the participle and the noun ; "but 
this," says Lowth, " is inconsistent ; let it be either the one or the other, and 
abide by its proper construction." It is also unnecessary, because the same 
idea may be otherwise expressed more elegantly ; as, " This will be the effect, 
if the pupil compose frequently." — " Why hive the committee delayed tins busi- 
ness ?" 

NOTES TO RULE XIX. 

Note I. — In the use of the possessive case, its appropriate 



CHAP. III.] SYNTAX.— RULE XIX.— POSSESSIVES. 209 

form should be observed : thus, write men's, hers, its, ours, 
yours, theirs ; and not, mens', her's, ifs, our's, your's, their , s. 

Note II. — When nouns of the possessive case, are connected 
by conjunctions, or put in apposition, the sign of possession 
must always be annexed to such, and such only, as immedi- 
ately precede the governing noun, expressed or understood ; 
as, " John and Eliza's teacher is a man of more learning than 
James's or Andrew's'" 1 — " For David my servant's sake." — 
Bible. "Lost in lovers and friendship 's smile." — Scott 

Note III. — The relation of property may also be expressed 
by the preposition o/*and the objective : as, " The will of man;''' 
for, " mans will." Of these forms, we should adopt that which 
will render the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable ; 
and, by the use of both, avoid an unpleasant repetition of 
either. 

Note IV. — A noun governing the possessive plural, should 

not be made plural, unless the sense requires it. Thus : say, 

" We have changed our mind" if only one purpose or opinion 

is meant. 

Obs. — A noun taken "figuratively may be singular, -when the literal mean* 
ing would require the plural: such expressions as, "their /ace," — "their 
neck" — "their hand," — "their head" — "their heart" — "our mouth"— 
*' our life" — are frequent in the Scriptures, and are not improper. 

Note V. — The possessive case should not be prefixed to a 
participle that is not taken in all respects as a noun. The 
following phrase is therefore wrong : " Adopted by the Goths 
in their pronouncing the Greek." — Walker's Key, p. IT. Ex- 
punge their. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XIX. — POSSESSIVES. 
Examples under Note 1. — The Possessive Form. 
Thy ancestors virtue is not thine. 

[Foexttle.— Not proper, because the noun ancestors, which is intended for tho pos- 
sessive plural, has not the appropriate form of that case. But, according to Note 1st 
under Eule 19th, "In the use of tho possessive case, its appropriate form should bo 
observed." An apostrophe is required after ancestors; thus, Thy ancestors' virtue 
is not thine. 1 '] 

Mans chief good is an upright mind. 

I will not destroy the city for ten sake. 

Moses rod was turned into a serpent. 

They are wolves in sheeps clothing. 

The tree is known by it's fruit. 

The privilege is not their's, any more than it is your's. 

Yet he was gentle as soft summer airs, 
Had grace for others sins, but none for theirs 1 . 
18* 



210 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

Under Note 2. — Possessives Connected. 

There is but little difference between the Earth and Venus's 

diameter. 
This hat is John, or James's. 
The store is opposite to Morris's and Company's. 
This palace had been the grand Sultan's Mahomet's. 
This was the Apostle's Paul's advice. 
Were Cain's occupation and Abel the same ? 
Were Cain and Abel's occupation the same 1 
Were Cain's and Abel's occupations the same 1 
Were Cain and Abel's parents the same ? 
Were Cain's parents and Abel the same? 
Was Cain's and Abel's father there ? 
Were Cain's and Abel's parents there % 

Thy Maker's will has placed thee here, 
A Maker's wise and good. 

Under Note 3. — Choice of Forms. 

The world's government is not left to chance. 
He was Louis the Sixteenth's son's heir. 
The throne we honour is the choice of the people. 
We met at my brother's partner's house. 
An account of the proceedings of the court of Alexander. 
Here is a copy of the Constitution of the Society of Teachers 
of the city of New York. 

Under Note 4. — Nouns with Possessives Plural. 

Their healths perhaps may be pretty well secured. — Locke. 

We all have talents committed to our charges. 

For your sakes forgave I it, in the sight of Christ. 

We are, for our parts, well satisfied. 

The pious cheerfully submit to their lots. 

Fools think it not worth their whiles to be wise. 

Under Note 5. — Possessives with Participles. 
I rewarded the boy for his studying so diligently. 
Have you a rule for your thus parsing the participle? 
He errs in his giving the word a double construction. 
By our offending others, we expose ourselves. 
They deserve our thanks, for their quickly relieving us. 

RULE XX.— OBJECTIVES. 

Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and pre- 
perfect participles, govern the objective case; as "I 



CHAP. Ill J SYNTAX.— RULE XX.— OBJECTIVES. 211 

found her assisting him. 11 — " Having finished the work, I 
submit it." 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XX. 

Obs. 1= — Every objective is governed by some verb ox participle, according 
to this Rule, or by some preposition, according to Rule 22d; except such as 
are put in apposition with others according to Rule 8d, or after an infinitive 
or participle according to Rule 21st; as } "Like Mm of Gain, Goliath."— 
" They took him to be me." 

Obs. 2. — The objective case generally follows the governing word : but 
when it is emphatic, it often precedes the nominative ; as, "Me he restored 
to mine office, and him he hanged." — Gen., xli, 13. '■'•Home he had not." — 
Thomson. " This point they have gained." In poetry it is sometimes placed 
between the nominative and the verb; as, " His daring foe securely him de- 
fied." — Milton. " The broom its yellow leaf hath shed." — Langhorne. A 
relative or an interrogative pronoun is commonly placed at the head of its 
clause, and of course it precedes the verb which governs it ; as, " I am Jesus, 
whom thou persecutest." — Acts. " Whom will the meeting appoint ?" 

Obs. 3. — All active-transitive verbs have some noun or pronoun for their 
object. Though verbs are often followed by the infinitive mood, or a de- 
pendent clause, forming a part of the logical predicate ; yet these terms, being 
commonly introduced by a connecting particle, do not constitute such an ob- 
ject as is contemplated in our definition of a transitive verb. If, in the sen- 
tence, "Boys love to play," the verb is transitive, as several grammarians 
affirm ; why not also in " Boys like to play," " Boys delight to play," " Boys 
seem to play," " Boys cease to play," and the like ? The' construction is pre- 
cisely the same, ft must, however, be confessed, that some verbs which 
thus take the infinitive alter them, cannot otherwise be intransitive. 

Obs. 4. — The word tluit, which is often employed to introduce a clause, is, 
by some grammarians, considered as a pronoun, representing the clause 
which follows it. And their opinion seems to be warranted both by the 
origin and the general import of the particle. But in conformity to general 
custom, and to his own views of the practical purposes of grammatical anal- 
ysis, the author has ranked it with the conjunctions. And he thinks it 
better, to call those verbs intransitive, which are followed by that and a de- 
pendent clause, than to supply the very frequent ellipses which the other 
explanation supposes.* To explain it as a conjunction, cenneciing an active- 
transitive verb and its object, (as several respectable grari^arians do,) appears 
%l involve some inconsistency. 

Obs. 5. — Active-transitive verbs are often followed by two objectives in 
apposition : as, " Thy saints proclaim thee king.'''' — Oowper. " The Author 
of my being formed me man.' 1 — Murray. "AndGcd called the firmament 
Heaven." — Bible. And, in such a construction, th& direct object is some- 
times placed before the verb ; as, " And Simon he surnamed Peter." — Mark, 
iii, 15. 

Obs. 6. — When a verb is followed by two words in the objective case, 
which are neither in apposition nor connected hy a conjunction, one of them 
is governed by a preposition understood ; as, "I paid [to] him the money." 
— "They offered [to] me a seat." — "He asked [of] them the question.'''' — " 1 
yielded, and unlock'd [to] her all my heart.'''' — Milton. 

Obs. 7. — In expressing such sentences passively, the object of the preposi- 
tion is sometimes erroneously assumed for the nominative; as, *' He was 
paid the money," in stead of, " The money was paid [to] him." 

NOTES TO RULE kX. 

Note I. — Those verbs and participles which require an ob- 
ject, should not be used intransitively ; as, " She affects [kind' 
ness,~\ in order to ingratiate [herself ] with you."«— " I wiil not 



212 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IIL 

allow o/it." Expunge of, that allow may govern the pronoun 

it. 

Note II. — Those verbs and participles which do not admit 

an object, should not be used transitively; as, " The planters 

grow cotton." Say raise, or cultivate. 

Obs. — Some verbs will govern a kindred noun, or its pronoun, but no 
other ; as, " He lived a virtuous life.' 1 '' — " Hear, I pray you, this dream which 
I have dreamed.'''' — Gen., xxxvii, 6. 

Note III. — The passive verb should always take for its sub- 
ject the direct object of the active-transitive verb from which 
it is derived ; as, (Active) " They denied me this privilege." — 
(Passive.) " This privilege was denied me," — not, "/was denied 
this privilege." 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XX. — OBJECTIVES. 
She I shall more readily forgive. 

[Fokmule. — Not proper, because the pronoun she\sm the nominative case, and ia 
used as the object of the active-transitive verb sludl forgive. But according to Rule 
20th, " Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and preperfect participles, govern 
the objective case." — Therefore, she should be her ; thus, Her I shall more readily 
forgive.] 

Thou only have I chosen. 

Who shall we send on this errand ? 

My father allowed my brother and I to accompany him. 

He that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 

Who should I meet but my old friend ! 

Pie accosts whoever he meets. 

Whosoever the court favours, is safe. 

They that honour me I will honour. 

Who do you think I saw the other day 1 

Under Note 1. — An Object Required. 

The ambitious are always seeking to aggrandize. 
I must premise with three circumstances. 
This society does not allow of personal reflections. 
False accusation cannot diminish from real merit. 
His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 

Under Note 2. — False Transitive^ 

Good keeping thrives the herd. 
We endeavoured to agree the parties. 
Being weary, he sat him down. 
Go, flee thee away into the land of Judah. 
The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on th* 
subject. 



CHAP. III.] SYNTAX.— RULE XXI.— SAME CASES. 213 

Under Note 3. — Passive Verbs. 

They were refused the benefit of their recantation. 
Believers are not promised temporal riches. 
We were shown several beautiful pictures. 
But, unfortunately, I was denied the favour. 
You were paid a high compliment. 
I have never been asked the question. 

RULE XXI.— SAME CASES. 

Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and 
their participles, take the same case after as before them, 
when both words refer to the same thing: as, u He re- 
turned a friend, who came a, foe." — Pope. " The child was 
named John? — "It could not be he." 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXI. 

Obs. 1. — The verbs described in this rule do not, like active-transitive 
verbs, require a regimen, or case after them ; hut their finite tenses may he 
followed by a nominative, and their infinitives and participles by a nomina- 
tive or an objective, explanatory of a noun or pronoun which precedes them. 
And as these cases belong after the verb or participle, they may in a certain 
sense be said to be governed by it. But the rule is perhaps more properly a 
rule of agreement ; the word which follows the verb or participle, may bo 
said to form a simple concord with that which precedes it, as if the two wera 
in apposition. [See Eule 3d.] 

Obs. 2. — In this rule the terms after and before refer rather to the order of 
the sense and construction, than to the placing of the words. The proper 
subject of the verb is the nominative to it, or bef&re it, by Eule 2d ; and the 
other nominative, however placed, belongs after it, by Eule 21st. In gen- 
eral, however, the proper subject precedes the verb, and the other -word fol- 
lows it, agreeably to the literal sense of the rule. But when the proper sub- 
ject is placed after the verb, as in the nine instances sp cified under Eule 
2d, the explanatory nominative, is commonly introduced still later; as, "But 
be thou an example of the believers." — 1 Tim., iv, 12. 

Obs. 3.— In interrogative sentences, the terms are usually transposed, or 
both are placed after the verb ; as, 

" Whence, and what art thou, execrable shape ?" — MiUon. 
" Art thou that traitor angel ? art thou 7u ?" — Idem. 

Obs. 4. — In a declarative sentence, there may be a rhetorical or poetical 
transposition of the terms; as, "I was eyes to the blind, and feet was / to 
the lame." — Job, xxix, 15. 

" Far other scene is Thrasymene now." — Byron. 

Obs. 5. — In some peculiar constructions, both words naturally come before 
the verb ; as, "I know not who she is." — " Inquire thou whose son the stripling 
is." — 1 Sam., xvii, 56. " Man would not be the creature whiclt he now is." — 
Blair. "I could not guess who it should be." — Addison. And they are 
sometimes placed in this manner by hyperbaton, or transposition ; as, " Yet 
He it is." — Young. "No contemptible orator he was." — l)r. Blair. 

Obs. 6. — As infinitives and participles have no nominatives of their own, 
such as are not transitive in themselves, may take different cases after them; 
and, in order to determine what case it is that follows them, the learner 
must carefully observe what preceding word denotes the same person or 
thing. This word being often remote and sometimes understood, the sense 



214 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAE. [PART III, 

is the only clew to the construction. Examples: i: Who then can bear the 
thought of being an outcast from his presence ?" — Addison, "/cannot help 
being so passionate an admirer as I am." — Steele. " To recommend what th.3 
soberer part of mankind look upon to be a trifle.''' 1 — Id. "It would be a ro- 
mantic madness, for a man to be a lord in his closet." — Id. " To affect to bo 
a lord in one's closet, would be a romantic madness." In this last sentence, 
lord is in the objective after to be; and madness, in the nominative after would 
be. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXI. — SAME CASES, 

We did not know that it was him, 

[Formtjle. — Not proper, because the pronoun him, which belongs after the neuter 
verb was, is in the objective case, and does not agree with the pronoun U, which be- 
longs before it as the nominative ; both words referring to the same thing. But, ac- 
cording to Rule 21st, "Active-intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs, and their par- 
ticiples, take the same case after as before. them, when both words refer to the same 
thing." Therefore, him should be he; thus, We did not know that it was he.] 

We thought it was thee. 

I would act the same part, if I were him, 

It could not have been her. 

It is not me, that he is angry with. 

They believed it to be I. 

It was thought to be him. 

If it had been her, she would have told us. 

We know it to be they. 

Whom do you think it is ? 

Who do you suppose it to be ? 

We did not know whom they were. 

Thou art him whom they described. 

Impossible ! it can't be me. 

Whom did he think you were % 

Whom say ye that I am % 

RULE XXII.— OBJECTIVES, 

Prepositions govern the Objective case: as, 
" Truth and good are one : 
And beauty dwells in them, and they in her % 
With like participation? — Akenside. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXII. 

Obs. 1. — Most of the prepositions may take the imperfect participle for their 
object; and some, the preperfect, or pluperfect: as, "On opening the trial, 
they accused him of having defrauded them." — "A quick wit, a nice judge- 
ment, &c, could not raise this man above being received only upon the foot 
of contributing to mirth and diversion." — Steele. And the preposition to is 
often followed by an infinitive. But, as prepositions, when they introduce 
declinable words, or words that have cases, always govern the objective, there 
are properly no exceptions to the foregoing rule. — Let not the learner suppose, 
that infinitives or participles, when they are governed by prepositions, are 
therefore in the objective case ; for case is no attribute of either of them. They 
are governed as participles or as infinitives, and not as cases. The mere fact 



CHAP. III.] SYNTAX.— RULE XXII.— OBJECTIVES. 215 

of government is so far from creating the modification governed, that it 
necessarily presupposes it to exist. 

Obs. 2. — Prepositions nrc sometimes clliptically construed with adjectives' 
as, in vain, in secret, at first, on high ; i. e., in a vain manner, in secret places, 
at the first time, on nigh places. Such phrases imply time, place, degree, or 
manner, and are equivalent to adverbs. In parsing, the learner may supply 
the ellipsis. 

Obs. 3. — In a few instances prepositions precede adverbs ; as, at once, from 
above, for ever. These should be united, and parsed as adverbs, or else the 
adverb must be parsed as a noun, according to observation 3d on Rule 15th. 

Obs. 4. — When nouns of time or measure are connected with verbs or ad- 
jectives, the prepositions which govern them, are generally suppressed : as, 
" We rode sixty miles that day ;" that is, " through sixty miles on that day." 
— " The wall is ten feet high ;" that is, " high to ten feet." In parsing, sup- 
ply the ellipsis ; or else you must take the time or measure adverbially, as 
relating to the verb or adjective qualified by it. Such expressions as, "A 
board of six feet long," — "A boy of twelve years old," are wrong. Strike 
out of ' • or say, " A board of six feet in length,' 1 '' — " A boy of twelve years of 
age" 

Obs. 5. — After the adjectives like, near, and nigh, the preposition to or un- 
to is often understood ;. as, "It is like [to or unto] silver." — Allen. "How 
like the former V—Dryden. "Near yonder copse." — Goldsmith. "Nigh this 
recess." — Garth. As similarity and proximity are relations, and not qual- 
ities, it might seem proper to call like, near, and nigh, prepositions ; and 
Borne grammarians have so classed the last two. Dr. Johnson seems to bo 
inconsistent in calling near a preposition in the phrase, "So near thy heart," 
and an adjective, in the phrase, " Being near their master !" We have not 
placed them with the prepositions for four reasons : (1.) Because they are 
sometimes compared. 1 (2.) Because they sometimes have adverbs evidently 
relating to them , (3.) Because the preposition to or unto is sometimes ex- 
pressed after them; and, (4.) Because the words which usually stand for 
them in the learned languages, are clearly adjectives. Like, when it expresses 
similarity of marine?', and near and nigh, when they express proximity of 
degree, are adverbs. 

Obs. 6. — The word worth is often followed by an adjective, or a participle, 
which it appears to govern; as, " If your arguments produce no conviction, 
they are worth nothing to me." — Beattie. "To reign is worth ambition."— 
Milton. "This is life indeed, life worth preserving." — Addison. It is not 
easy to determine to what part of speech worth here belongs. Dr. Johnson 
calls it an adjective, but says nothing of the object after it, which some sup- 
pose to be governed by of understood. In this supposition, it is gratuitously 
assumed, that worth is equivalent ta worthy, after which of should be ex- 
pressed; as, "Whatsoever is worthy of their love, is worth their anger." — 
Denham. But, as worth appears to have no certain characteristic of an ad- 
jective, some call it a noun, and suppose a double ellipsis ; as, " The book is 
[of the] worth [of] a dollar." This is still less satisfactory; and, as the 
whole appears to be mere guess-work, we see no good reason why worth is 
not a preposition, governing the noun or participle. If an adverb precede 
worth, it may as well be referred to the foregoing verb, as when it occurs 
before any other preposition. 

Obs. 7. — Both Dr. Johnson and Borne Tooke, (who never agreed if they 
could help it,) unite in saying that wort h, in the phrases, "Wo worth the 
man," — " Wo worth the day,""&c., is from the imperative of the Saxon verb 
wrythan or iveorthan, t» be; i. e., " Wo be [to] the man," or, " Wo betide the 
man," &c. And the latter affirms, that, as by is from the imperative of beon, 
to be, so with (though admitted to be sometimes from withan, to join) is often 
no other than this same imperative verb wyrth or worth: if so, the words by, 
with, and worth, were originally synonymous, and should now be referred to 
one and the same class. The dative case, or oblique object, which they gov- 
erned as Saxon verbs, becomes their proper object, when taken as English 
prepositions ; and in this also they appear to be alike. 

Obs. 8. — After verbs ®f giving, procuring, and some others, there is usually 



216 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

an ellipsis of to or for before the objective of the person; as, " Give [to] him 
Water to drink." — "Buy [for] me a knife." So in the exclamation, "Wo 
is me /" — meaning, " Wo is to me !" 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXII. — OBJECTIVES. 
It rests with thou and me to decide. 

[Formttle. — Not proper, because the pronoun thou is in the nominative case, and 
is governed, by the preposition with. But, according to Kule 22d, "Prepositions 
govern the objective case." Therefore, thou should be thee; thus, It rests with the& 
and me to decide,] 

Let that remain a secret between you and I. 

I lent the book to some one, I know not who 

Who did he inquire for 1 Thou. 

From he that is needy, turn not away. 

We are all accountable, each for his own act's. 

Does that boy know who he is speaking to ? 

I bestow my favours on whosoever I will. 

EULE XXIII.— INFINITIVES. 

The preposition to governs the Infinitive mood, and 
commonly connects it to a finite verb; "I desire TO 
learn" — Dr. Adam. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXIII. 

Obs. 1. — No "word is more variously explained by grammarians, than this 
word to, which is prefixed to the verb in the infinitive mood. Johnson, 
Walker, Scott, Todd, and other lexicographers, call it an adverb ; but, in ex- 
plaining its use, they say it denotes certain relations, which it is not the office 
of an adverb, to express. [See Johnson 1 Dictionary, 4to.] Lowth, Murray, 
Webster, Goar, Gomly, and others, call it a preposition : and some of these 
ascribe it to the government of the verb, and others do not. Lowth says, 
"The preposition to placed before the verb, makes the infinitive mood." 
Skinner, in his Canones Etymologici, calls it an equivocal article. Home Tooke, 
who shows that most of our conjunctions and prepositions may be traced 
back to ancient verbs and nouns, says that to has the same origin as do, and 
he seems to consider it an auxiliary verb. Many are content to call it a pre- 
fix, a particle, & sign of the infinitive, &c, without telling us why or how it is 
so, or to what part of speech it belongs. If it be apart of the infinitive, it is a 
verb, and must be classed with the auxiliaries. JJr. Ash placed it among the 
auxiliaries; but he says, the auxiliaries "seem to have the nature of ad- 
verbs." We have given in the preceding rule that explanation which we 
consider to be the most correct and the most simple. "Who first parsed the 
infinitive in this manner we know not ; the doctrine is found in several 
English grammars, one of which, written by a classical teacher, was published 
in London in 1796.— See Goar's Grammar, 12mo, p. 263. 

Obs. 2. — Most English grammarians have considered the word to as a part 
cf the infinitive ; and, like the teachers of Latin, have referred the govern- 
ment of this mood to a preceding verb. But the rule which they give is 
partial, and often inapplicable ; and their exceptions to it are numerous and 
puzzling. They teach that at least half the different parts of speech frequent- 
ly govern the infinitive : if so, there should be a distinct rule for each ; for 
why should the government of one part of speech be made an exception to 
that of an other ? and, if this be done, with respect to the infinitive, why not 
&Uo with respect to the objective case ? In all instances to which their rule 



CHAP. III.] SYNTAX.— EULE XXIII.— INFINITIVES. 217 

ia applicable, the rule here given amounts to the same thing; and it obviatea 
the necessity for their numerous exceptions, and the embarrassment arising 
from other constructions of the infinitive not noticed in them. 

Obs. 3. — The infinitive thus admits a simpler solution in English, than in 
most other languages. In French, the infinitive, though frequently placed 
in immediate dependence on an other verb, may also be governed by several 
different prepositions, (as a, de, pour, sans, apres,) according to the sense.* 
In Spanish and Italian, the construction is similar. In Latin and Greek, the 
infinitive is, for the most part, dependent on an other verb, But, according 
to the grammars, it may stand for a noun in all the six cases ; and many 
have called it an indeclinable noun. See the Port-Royal Latin and Greek 
Grammars ; in which several peculiar constructions of the infinitive, are re- 
ferred to the government of 'a preposition. 

Obs. 4.— Though the infinitive is commonly made an adjunct to some finite 
verb, yet it may be joined to almost all the other parts of speech, or to an 
ether infinitive ; as, 

1- To a noun ; as, " He had leave to go." 

2. To an adjective ; as, " We were anxious to see you." 

3. To a pronoun ; as, " I discovered him to be a scholar." 

4. To a verb in the infinitive ; as, "To cease to do evil." 

5. To a participle; as, "Endeavouring to escape, he fell." 

6. To an adverb; as, " She is old enough to go to school,'" 

7. To a conjunction ; as, " He knows better than to trust you." 

8. To a preposition ; as, "I was about to write.'''' — Rev., x, 4. 

9. To an interjection ; (by ellipsis ;) as, u O to forget her !" — Young. 

Obs. 5. — The infinitive is the mere verb, without affirmation ; and, irj 
some respect, resembles a noun. It may stand for — 

1. A subject ; as, "To steal is sinful," 

2. A predicate; as, "To enjoy is to obey." — PopU 

3. A purpose, or an end ; as, " He 's gone to do it." — Edgeworth, 

4. An employment; as, " He loves to ride." - 

5. A cause ; as, " I rejoice to hear it." 

6. A coming event; as, "A structure soon to fall." — Cowper. 

7- A term of comparison ; as, " He was so much affected as to weep." 

Obs. 6. — Anciently, the infinitive was sometimes preceded bjjor as we^ 

as to ; as, " I went up to Jerusalem for to worship." — Acts, xxiv, 11. " What 

went ye out for to see ?" — Luke, vii, 26. 

-" Learn skilfullie how 

Each grain for to laie by itself on a mow." — lusser. 

Modern usage rejects the former preposition. 

Obs. 7.— The infinitive sometimes depends on a verb understood ; as, il To 
be candid with you, [7 confess] I was in fault." Some grammarians have er- 
roneously taught that the' infinitive in such sentences is put absolute. 

Obs. 8. — The infinitive, or a phrase of which the infinitive is a part, being 
introduced apparently as the subject of a verb, but superseded by some other 
word, is put absolute, or left unconnected, by pleonasm; as, 

"To be, or not to be; — that is the question." — Sliakspeare. 

Obs. 9. — The infinitive of the verb be, is often understood ; as, " I suppose 
It [to be] necessary." [See Obs. 2d on Rule xxiv.J 

Obs. 10. — The infinitive usually follows the word on which it depends; 
but this order is sometimes reversed ; as, 

"To catch your vivid scenes, too gross her hand."— Thomson. 

* "La preposition, est tin mot indeclinable, place devant les noms, lespronoms, et 
Jes verbes, qu'elle regit— The preposition is an indeclinable word placed before the 
nouns, pronouns, and verbs, which it governs.' 1 '' — Perrin's Grammar , x>. 152 

" Every verb placed immediately after an other verb, or after a preposition, ought 
to be put in the infinitive ; because it is then the regimen of the verb or preposition 
which precedes."— Gram, des Gram, par Girault Du Vivier, p. 774. 

10 



218 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXIII. — INFINITIVES. 
Ought these things be tolerated ? 

[Formttle.— Not proper, because the infinitive be tolerated, is not preceded by tho 
preposition to. But, according to Rule 23d, "The preposition to governs the infinitive 
mood, and commonly connects it to a finite verb." Therefore, to should be inserted; 
thus, Ought these things to be tolerated?] 

Please excuse my son's absence. 
Cause every man go out from me. 
Forbid them enter the garden. 
Do you not perceive it move 1 
Allow others discover your merit, 
He was seen go in at that gate. 
Permit me pass this way. 

EULE XXIV.— INFINITIVES. 

The active verbs, hid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, 
see, and their participles, usually take the Infinitive after 
them, without the preposition to : as, " If be bade tbee 
depart, bow darest thou stay V 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXIV. 

Obs. 1. — Th© preposition is almost always employed after the passive form 
©f these verbs, and in some instances after the active : as, " He was heard to 
gay." — "I cannot see to do it." — "What would dare to molest him who 
might call, on every side, to thousands enriched by his bounty?" — Dr. John- 
son. 

Obs. 2. — The auxiliary he of the passive infinitive is also suppressed, after 
/eel, hear, make, and see ; as, "I heard the letter read," — not, "be read. 

Obs. 3. — A few other verbs, besides the eight which are mentioned in the 
foregoing rule, sometimes have the infinitive after them without to "such as, 
behold, find, have, help, mark, observe, and other equivalents of see. Example : 
"Certainly it is heaven upon earth, to have a man's mind move in charity^ 
rest in Providence, and turn upon the poles of truth." — Ld. Bacon. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXIV.' — INFINITIVES. 
They need not to call upon her. 

[Formtjle. — Not proper, because the preposition to is inserted before call, which 
follows the active verb need. But, according to Hule 24th, "The active verbs bid, 
dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and their participles, usually take the infinitive 
after them, without the preposition to." Therefore, to should be omitted; thus, They 
need not call upon her.] 

1 felt a chilling sensation to creep over me. 

I have heard him to mention the subject. 

Bid the boys to come in immediately. 

1 dare to say he has not got home yet. 

Let no rash promise to be made 

We sometimes see bad men to be honoured. 

A good reader will make himself to be distinctly heard. 



CHAP. III.] SYNTAX.— RULE XXV.— NOM. ABSOLUTE. 219 

RULE XXV.— NOM. ABSOLUTE. 

A noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the Komi- 
native, when its case depends on no other word: as, u He 
failing, who shall meet success?" — "Your yagers, where 
are they ? and the prophets, do they live forever ?" — • 
Zech., i, 5. 

" This said, he form'd thee, Adam! thee, man! 
Dust of the ground !" — Milton. 

OBSERVATIONS ON RULE XXV. 

Obs. 1. — In parsing the nominative absolute, tell how it is put so, whether 
with a participle, by direct address, by pleonasm, or by exclamation ; for a 
noun or a pronoun is put absolute in the nominative, under the following 
four circumstances: 

1. When, with a participle, it is used to express a cause, or a concomitant 
fact; as, 

"Thou looking on, 

Shame to be overcome or overreach'd, 
Would utmost vigor raise." — Milton. 

2. When, by direct address, it is put in the second person, and set off from 
the verb by a comma; as, "At length, Seged, reflect and bo wise." — Dr. 
Johnson. 

3. When, oy pleonasm, it is introduced abruptly for the sake of emphasis ; 
as, "He that is in the city, famine and pestilence shall devour him." "Gad, 
a troop shall overcome him." — Gen., xlix, 19. " The north and the south, 
thou hast created them." — Psalms, lxxxix, 12. [See the figure Pleonasm, in 
fart rv.] 

4. When, by mere exclamation, it is used without address, and without 
other words expressed or implied to give it construction ; as, 

"Oh! deep en ch anting prel ude to repose, 
The dawn of bliss, the twilight of our woes !" — Campbell. 

Obs. 2. — The nominative put absolute, with a participle, is equivalent to a 
dependent clause, commencing with when, while, if, since, or because; as, " I 
being a child," — equal to, " When I was a child." 

Obs. 3. — The participle being is often understood after nouns or pronouns 
put absolute ; as, 

" Alike in ignorance, his reason [ ] such, 

Whether he thinks too little or too much." — Pope. 

Obs. 4. — All nouns in the second person are either put absolute, according 
to Eule 25th, or in apposition with their own pronouns placed before them, 
according to Eule 3d : as, " This is the stone which was set at nought of 
you builders.'''' — Acts. 

"Peace ! minion, peace ! it boots not me to hear 
The selfish counsel of you hangers-on.' 1 '' — Author. 

Obs. 5. — Nouns preceded by an article, are almost always in the third per- 
son; and, in exclamatory phrases, such nouns sometimes appear to have no 
determinable construction ; as, " the depth of the riches both of the wisdom 
and knowledge of God."— Rom., xi, 33. 

Obs. 6. — The case of nouns used in exclamations, or in mottoes and ab- 
breviated sayings, often depends, or may be conceived to depend, on some- 
thing understood; and, when their construction can be satisfactorily explained 
on the principle of ellipsis, they are not put absolute. The following examples 
may perhaps be resolved in this manner, though the expressions will lose 
much of their vivacity: "Ahorse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse!"— 



220 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART HI. 

Shal. "Heaps upon heaps," —"Shin for skin,"—" An eye for an eye, and a 
tooth for a tooth,"— "Day after day,"—" World without end."— Bible. 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXV. — NOM. ABSOLUTE. 
Him having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed. 

[Formule.— Not proper, because the pronoun him, whose case depends on no other 
word, is in the objective case. But, according to Eule 25th, " A noun or a pronoun 
is put absolute in the nominative, when its case depends on no other word. There- 
fore, him should be he ; thus, Ee having ended his discourse, the assembly dispersed.] 

Me being young, they deceived me. 

Them refusing to comply, I withdrew. 

Thee being present, he would not tell what he knew. 

The child is lost ; and me, whither shall I go ? 

Oh happy us ! surrounded thus with blessings ! — Murray* 

" Thee too ! Brutus, my son !" cried Caesar overcome. 

But him, the chieftain of them all, 

His sword hangs rusting on the wall. 

Her quick relapsing to her former state, 

With boding fears approach the serving train. 

There all thy gifts and graces we display, 

Thee, only thee, directing all our way. 

EULE XXVI.— SUBJUNCTIVES. 

A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in 
the Subjunctive present; and a mere supposition with 
indefinite time, by a verb in the Subjunctive imperfect: 
but a conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires 
the Indicative mood: as, "If thou forsake him, he will 
cast thee off forever." — " If it were not so, I would have 
told you." — " If thou went, nothing would be gained." — ■ 
" Though he is poor, he is contented." 

NOTES TO RULE XXVI. 

Note I. — In connecting words that express time, the order 
and fitness of time should be observed. Thus : in stead of, 
" I have seen him last week" say, " I saiv him last week ;" and 
in stead of, " I saw him this week" say, " I have seen him this 
week." 

Note II. — Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, hoping, 
intending, permitting, and some others, in all their tenses, refer 
to actions or events, relatively present or future : one should 
therefore say, " I hoped you would come" — not, " would have 
come;" and, "I intended to do it," — not, "to have done it;" 
&c. 

Note III. — Propositions that are at all times equally true 



CHAP. III.] SYNTAX.— KULE XXVI.— SUBJUNCTIVES. 221 

or false, should generally be expressed in the present tense ; 
as, " He seemed hardly to know, that two and two make four," 
— not, " made.'''' 

FALSE SYNTAX UNDER RULE XXVI. — MOODS. 
Under the First Clause of Rule 26. — Future Contingencies, 
He will not be pardoned, unless he repents. 

[Formttl'e. — Not proper, because the verb repents, which is used to express a future 
contingency, is in the indicative mood. But, according to the jfirst clause of Eule 26th, 
"A future contingency is best expressed by a verb in the subjunctive present." 
Therefore, repents, should be repent; thus, He will not be pardoned, unless he repent , 

He will maintain his cause, though he loses his estate, 

They will fine thee, unless thou offerest an excuse. 

I shall walk out in the afternoon, unless it rains. 

Let him take heed lest he falls. 

On condition that he comes, I consent to stay. 

If he is but discreet, he will succeed. 

Take heed that thou speakest not to Jacob. 

If thou castest me off, I shall be miserable. 

Send them to me, if thou pleasest. 

Watch the door of thy lips, lest thou utterest folly. 

Under the Second Clause of Rule 26. — Mere Suppositions, 
And so would I, if I was he. 

[Fokmttle. — Not proper, because the verb was, which is used to express a mere sup- 
position, with indefinite time, is in the indicative mood. But, according to the second 
clause of Eule 26th, "A mere supposition, with indefinite time, is best expressed by a 
verb in the subjunctive imperfect.' ' Therefore was should be were; thus, And eo 
would I, if I were he.] 

If I was to write, he would not regard it. 

If thou feltest as I do, we should soon decide. 

Though thou sheddest thy blood in the cause, it would but 

prove thee sincerely a fool. 
If thou lovedst him, there would be more evidence of it, 
I believed, whatever was the issue, all would be well. 
If love was never feigned, it would appear to be scarce. 
There fell from his eyes as it had been scales. 
If he was an impostor, he must have been detected. 
Was death denied, all men would wish to die. 
O that there was yet a day to redress thy wrongs ! 
Though thou wast huge as Atlas, thy efforts would be vain. - 

Under the Last Clause of Rule 26. — Assumed Facts. 
If he know the way, he does not need a guide. 

[Formttlk. — Not proper, because the verb know, which is used to express a condi- 
tional circumstance assumed as a fact, is in the subjunctive mood. But, according to 
the last clause of Rule 26th, " A conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, requires 
the indicative mood." Therefore, know should be knows; thus, If he knows the way» 
he does not need a guide.] 



222 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IIL 

Though he seem to be artless, he has deceived us. 

If he think as he speaks, he may be safely trusted. 

Though this event be strange, it certainly did happen. 

If thou love tranquillity of mind, seek it not abroad. 

If seasons of idleness be dangerous, what must a continued 

habit of it prove? — -Blair, 
Though he were a son, yet learned he obedience by the things 

which he suffered. 
I knew thou wert not slow to hear. 

Tinder Note 1 . — Words of Time, 
The work has been finished last week. 
He was out of employment this fortnight. 
This mode of expression has been formerly in use. 
I should be much obliged to him if he will attend to it. 
1 will pay the vows which my lips have uttered when I was in 

trouble. 
I have compassion on the multitude, because they continue 

with me now three days. 
I thought, by the accent, that he had been speaking to his 

child. 
And he that was dead sat up and began to speak. 
Thou hast borne, and hast patience, and for my name's sake 

hast laboured, and hast not fainted. — Rev., ii, 3. 
Ye will not come unto me that ye might have life. 
At the end of this quarter, I shall be at school two years. 
We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 

Under Note 2. — Relative Tenses. 

We expected that he would have arrived last night. 

Our friends intended to have met us. 

We hoped to have seen you. 

He would not have been allowed to have entered. 

Under Note 3. — Permanent Propositions. 

The doctor affirmed, that fever always produced thirst. 
The ancients asserted 5 that virtue was it own reward. 

PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. 
LESSON" I. 

[It is here expected that the learner will ascertain for himself the proper form of 
correcting each example, according to the particular Kule or Note under which it be- 
longs.] 

There is a spirit in man ; and the inspiration of the Almighty 

giveth them understanding. 
My people doth not consider. 



CHAP. III.] SYNTAX.— ERRORS.—PROMISCUOUS. 223 

I have never heard who they invited. 

Then hasten thy return ; for, thee away, 
Nor lustre has the sun, nor joy the day. 

I am as well as when you was here. 

That elderly man, he that came in late, I supposed to be the 
superintendent. 

All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fin- 
gers, but his follies and vices are innumerable. 

It must indeed be confessed that a lampoon or a satire do not 
carry in them robbery or murder. 

There was more persons than one engaged in this affair. 

A man who lacks ceremony, has need for great merit. 

A wise man avoids the showing any excellence in trifles. 

The most important and first female quality is sweetness of 
temper. 

We choose rather lead than follow. 

Ignorance is the mother of fear, as well as admiration. 

He must fear many, who many fear. 

Every one partake of honour bestowed on the worthy* 

The king nor the queen were not at all deceived. 

Was there no difference, there would be no choice. 

] had rather have been informed. 

Mast thee return this evening 1 

Life and death is in the power of the tongue. 

I saw a person that I took to be she. 

Let him be whom he may, I shall not stop. 

This is certainly an useful invention. 

That such a spirit as thou dost not understand me. 

* It is no more but justice,' quoth the farmer. 

LESSON II. 

Great improvements has been made. 

It is undoubtedly true what I have heard. 

The nation is torn by feuds which threaten their ruin. 

The account of these transactions were incorrect. 

Godliness with contentment are great gain. 

The number of sufferers have not been ascertained. » 

There are one or more of them yet in confinement, 

They have chose the wisest part. 

He spent his whole life in doing of good. 

They know scarcely that temperance is a virtue. 

I am afraid lest I have laboured in vain. 

Mischief to itself doth back recoil. 

This construction sounds rather harshly. 

What is the cause of the leaves curling ? 



224 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GKAMMAK. [PART III 

Was it thee, that made the noise ? 

Let thy flock clothe upon the naked. 

Wisdom and knowledge is granted unto thee. 

His conduct was surprising strange. 

This woman taught my brother and I to read. 

Let your promises be such that you can perform. 

We shall sell them in the state they now are. 

We may add this observation, however. 

This came in fashion when I was young. 

] did not use the leaves, but root of the plant. 

We have used every mean in our power continually. 

Pass ye away, thou inhabitant of Saphir. — Micah, i, 11. 

Give every syllable and every letter their proper sound. 

LESSON III. 

To know exactly how much mischief may be ventured upou 

with impunity, are knowledge enough for some folks. 
Every leaf and every twig teem with life. 
I was rejoiced at this intelligence. 
At this stage of advancement, there is little difficulty in the 

pupil's understanding the passive and neuter verbs. 
I was afraid that I should have lost the parcel. 
Which of all these patterns is the prettier % 
They which despise instruction shall not be wise. 
Both thou and thy advisers have mistaken their interest. 
A idle soul shall suffer hunger. 
The lips of knowledge is a precious jewel. 
I and my cousin are requested to attend. 
Can only say that such is my belief 
This is different from the conscience being made to feel. 
Here is ground for their leaving the world with peace. 
Where are you all running so fast ? 
A man is the noblest work of creation. 
Of all other crimes willful murder is the most atrocious. 
The tribes whom I visited, are partially civilized. 
[From hence I conclude they are in error. 
The girls' books are neater than the boys. 
1 intended to have transcribed it. 
Shall a character made up of the very worst passions, pasa 

under the name of a gentleman % 
Ehoda ran in, and told how Peter stood before the gate. 
What is latitude and longitude % 
Cicero was more eloquent than any Roman. 
Who dares apologize for Pizarro 1 — who is but another name 

for rapacity % 



CHAP. III.] SYNTAX— ERRORS.— PROMISCUOUS. 225 

LESSON IV. 

Tell me whether you will do it or no. 

After the most straitest sect, I lived a Pharisee. 

We have no more but five loaves and two fishes. 

I know not who it was who did it. 

Doubt not, little though there be, 

But I'll cast a crumb to thee. — Langhome. 

This rule is the best which can be given. 

I have never seen no other way. 

These are poor amends for the men and treasures which we 
have lost. 

Dost thou know them boys ? 

This is a part of my uncle's father's estate. 

Many people never learn to speak correct. 

Some people are rash, and others timid : those apprehend too 
much, these too little. 

Is it lawful for us to give tribute to Caesar or no 1 

It was not worth while preserving any permanent enmity. 

I no sooner saw my face in it, but I was startled at the short- 
ness of it. 

Every person is answerable for their own conduct. 

They are men that scorn a mean action, and who will exert 
themselves to serve you. 

I do not" recollect ever having paid it. 

The stoics taught that all crimes were equal. 

Every one of these theories are now exploded. 

Either of these four will answer. 

There is no situation where he would be happy. 

The boy has been detected in stealing, that you thought so 
clever. 

I will meet thee there if thee please. 

He is not so sick, but what he can laugh. 

These clothes does not fit me. 

The audience was all very attentive. 

Wert thou some star, which from the ruin'd roof 
Of shak'd Olympus by mischance didst fall ! — Milton. 

LESSON V. 

Was the master, or many of the scholars, in the room 1 
His father's and mother's consent was asked. 
Whom is he supposed to be 1 
He is an old venerable man. 
It was then my purpose to have visited Sicily. 
It is to the learner only, and he that is in doubt, that this as* 
sistance is recommended. 

10* 



226 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

There are not the least hope of his recovery. 

Anger and impatience is always unreasonable. 

In his letters, there are not only correctness, but elegance. 

Opportunity to do good is the highest preferment which a 

noble mind desires. 
The year when he died, is not mentioned. 
Had I knew it, I should not have went. 
Was it thee, that spoke to me ? 
The house is situated pleasantly. 
He did it as private as he possibly could. 
Subduing our passions is the noblest of conquests. 
James is more diligent than thee. 
Words interwove with sighs found out their way. 
He appears to be diffident excessively. 
The number of our days are with thee. 
Like a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth them that 

fear him. — Psalms, ciii, 13. 
The circumstances of this case, is different. 
Well for us, if some such other men should rise! 
A man that is young in years, may be old in hours, if he have 

lost no time. 
The chief captain, fearing lest Paul should have been pulled 

in pieces of them, commanded the soldiers to go down, and 

to take them by force from among them. — Acts, xxiii, 10. 
Nay, weep not, gentle Eros ; there is left us 
Ourselves to end ourselves. — Shakspeare. 



CHAPTER IV.— GENERAL ITEMS. 

The following comprehensive canon for the correction 
of all sorts of nondescript errors in syntax, a few gene- 
ral observations on the foregoing code of instructions, 
some examples of false syntax to be corrected by the 
General Rule, and a series of parsing lessons, illustrative 
of the Exceptions and Observations previously present- 
ed, constitute the present chapter. 

GENERAL RULE OF SYNTAX 

In the formation of sentences, the consistency and 
adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed ; 
and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction 
should be preserved throughout. 



CHAP. IV.] SYNTAX. — GENERAL RULE.— OBS. 227 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE SYNTAX. 

Obs. 1. — In proportion as the rules of Syntax are made few and general, 
they must be either vague or liable to exceptions. The number of the prin- 
ciples which deserve to be placed in the rules, is not fixed by any obvious 
distinction ; hence the diversity in the number of the rules as given by dif- 
ferent grammarians. In this matter a middle course seems to be best. We 
have therefore taken the parts of speech in their order, and comprised all 
the general principles of relation, agreement, and government, in twenty-six 
leading Rules. Of these rules, eight (namely, the 1st, the 4th, the 14th, the 
15th, the 16th, the 17th, the 18th, and the 19th,) are used only \n parsing; 
two (namely, the 13th and the 26th,) are necessary only for the correction of 
false syntax; the remaining sixteen answer the double purpose of parsing 
and correction. The Exceptions, of which there are twenty-six, belong to 
ten different rules. The Notes, of which there are eighty seven, are subordin- 
ate rules of syntax, formed for the detection of errors. The Observations, of 
which there are about two hundred, are chiefly designed to explain the ar- 
rangement of words, and whatever is difficult or peculiar in construction. 

Obs. 2. — The General Rule of Syntax, being designed to meet every possi- 
ble form of error in construction, necessarily includes all the particular rules 
and notes. It is too broad to convey very definite instruction, and ought 
not to be applied were a special rule or note is applicable. A few examples, 
not properly coming under any other head, will serve to show its use and 
application : such examples are given in the false syntax below. 

Obs. 3. — In the foregoing pages, the principles of syntax or construction, 
are supposed to be pretty fully developed ; but there may be in composition 
many errors of such a nature that no rule of grammar can show what should 
he substituted. The greater the inaccuracy, the more difficult the correction ; 
because the sentence may require a change throughout. Thus, the follow- 
ing definition, though very short, is a fourfold solecism : "Number is the 
consideration of an object, as one oxmore.' 1 ' 1 — Murray. This sentence, though 
written by one grammarian, and copied- by twenty others, cannot be cor- 
rected but by changing every word in it : but this will of course destroy its 
identity, and form an other sentence, not an amendment. It is unfortunate for 
youth, that a volume of these incorrigible sentences might be culled from 
our grammars! Examples of false syntax cannot embrace what is either 
utterly wrong in thought, or utterly unintelligible in 1 anguage ; for the writer's 
meaning must be preserved in the correction, and where no sense is discov- 
ered, particular improprieties can never be detected and proved. The sen- 
tence above is one which we cannot correct ; but we can say of it— first, that 
number in grammar never can be defined, because unity and plurality have 
no common property— secondly, that number is not consideration, in any 
sense of the word — thirdly, that an object is known to be one object, by mere 
intuition, and not by consideration — and, fourthly , that he who considers an 
object as more than one, misconceives it ! ! ! ! 

Obs. 4. — In the first eighteen rules, we have given the syntax of all the 
parts of speech in regard to relation and agreement. And, by placing the 
rules in the order of the parts of speech, we hope to have relieved the pupil 
from all difficulty in recollecting the numbers by which they are distin- 
guished ; for, in the exercise of parsing, it is very important that the Rules 
be distinctly and accurately quoted by the pupil. Relation and, agreement 
have been taken together, because they could not properly be separated. 
One word may relate to an other and not agree with it; but there is never 
any necessary agreement between words that have not a relation, or a depend- 
ence on each other according to the sense. 

Obs. 5. — The English language having few inflections, has also few con- 
cords or agreements. Articles, adjectives, and participles, which in many 
other languages agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case, have 
usually in English, no modifications in which they can agree with their 
nouns. Zowth says, " The adjective in English, having no variation of gen- 
der and number, cannot but agree with the substantive in these respects." 
"What then is the agreement of 'words ? Can it be any thing else than their 



228 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAK. [PART III, 

similarity in some common property or modification ? And is it not obvious, 
that no two things in nature can any wise agree or be alike, except in some qual- 
ity or accident which belongs to each of them ? Yet how often have Murray 
and others, as well as Lowth, forgotten this ! To give one instance out of 
many: "Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pro' 
nouns, he, she, it?' 1 — Murray, Pierce, Flint, Lyon, Bacon, Russell, Fisk 7 
Maltby, Alger, Miller, Merchant, Kirlcham, and other idle copyists. Yet, ac- 
cording to these same gentlemen, "Gender is the distinction of nouns, with 
regard to sex;" and, "Pronouns must alivays agree with their antecedents, 
and the nouns for which they stand, in gender." Now, not one of these 
three careless assertions can possibly be reconciled with either of the 
others ! ! ! 



FALSE SYNTAX UNDER THE GENERAL RULE. 
If I can contribute to your and my country's glory. — Goldsmith. 

[Formule.— Not proper, because the pronoun your has not a clear and regular con- 
struction. But, according to the General Rule of Syntax, " In the formation of sen° 
tences, the consistency and adaptation of all the words should be carefully observed; 
and a regular, clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved throughout." 
The sentence having a double meaning, may be corrected in two ways: thus, If I 
can contribute to our country's glory — or, If I can contribute to your glory and that 
of my country.] 

Is there, then, more than one true religion 1 

The laws of Lycurgus but substituted insensibility to enjoy- 
ment. — Goldsmith. 

Rain is seldom or ever seen at Lima. 

The young bird raising its open mouth for food, is a natural 
indication of corporeal want. — Cardell. 

There is much of truth in the observation of Ascham.— Id. 

Adopting the doctrine which he had been taught. — Id. 

This library exceeded half a million volumes. — Id. 

The Coptic alphabet was one of the latest formed of any. — Id. 

Many evidences exist of the proneness of men to vice. — Id. 

To perceive nothing, or not to perceive, is the same. 

The king of France or England was to be the umpire. 

He may be said to have saved the life of a citizen ; and, con- 
sequently, entitled to the reward. 

The men had made inquiry for Simon's house, and stood be- 
fore the gate. — Acts, x, 17. 

Give no more trouble than you can possibly help. 

The art of printing being then unknown, was a circumstance 
in some respects favourable to freedom of the pen. 

Another passion which the present age is apt to run into, is 
to make children learn all things. — Goldsmith. 

It requires few talents to which most men are not born, or, at 
least, may not acquire. 

Nor was Philip wanting in his endeavours to corrupt Demos- 
thenes, as he had most of the leading men in Greece. — 
Goldsmith. 



CHAP. IV.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 229 

The Greeks, fearing to be surrounded on all sides wheeled 
about and halted, with the river on their backs. — Id. 

Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying of 
our wants ; and riches, upon enjoying our superfluities. 
That brother should not war with brother, 
And worry and devour each other. — Cowper. 
Such is the refuge of our youth and age ; 
The first from hope, the last from vacancy.— -Byr on. 
Triumphant Sylla ! couldst thou then divine, 
By aught than Romans Rome should thus be laid ? — Id. 



EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 



SENTENCES OF PECULIAR OR IRREGULAR CONSTRUCTION. 

The examples here given, with the subjoined references and anno- 
tations, are designed to illustrate, and exercise the pupil in, 
the various Observations, Exceptions, and Notes under the 
Sections upon Analysis, and the Rules of Syntax. The 
Praxis is the same as in the preceding Syntactical Exercises. 

I. PROSE. 

The philosopher, the saint, or the hero — the wise, the good, 
or the great man — very often lies hid and concealed in a ple- 
beian, which*- a proper education might have disinterred and 
brought to light. — Addison. 

Knowest thou not this of old, since man was placed upon 
the earth, that the triumphing of the wicked is short, and the 
joy of the hypocrite but h for a moment? — Job, xx., 4, 5. 

Wherefore ye needs must be subject, not only for wrath, but 
also for conscience" 1 ^ sake. — Rom., xiii., 5. 

For now I see through a glass darkly ; but then, face to 
face e : now I know in part ; but then shall I know even as 
also I am known. — 1 Cor., xiii., 12. 

Ye have heard that it hath been said, *• An eye for an eye, 
and a tooth for a tooth'*-'. — Matt., v., 37. 

Every man should let his man-servant, and every man his 
maid-servant, being a Hebrew or an Hebrewess, go free ; that 

a Note V., Rule V. 

h Obs. 3, Note VII., Rule XV. ; and Obs. 2, page 112. 
e Adverb. Contraction of need is. 
d Obs. 7, Rule XIX, 

e Adverbial phrase, idiomatic ; or independent phrase, absolute. [See page 112.] 
( Explanatory clause, predicate being understood. Obs. 6, Rule XXV. 

20 



230 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH! GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

none should serve himself of them, to wits, of a Jew his 
brother. — Jer., xxxiv., 9. 

The beautiful forest in which we were encamped, abounded 
in bee-trees ; that is to say h , trees in the decayed trunks of 
which, wild bees had established their hives. — Irving. 

And this is the record of John, when the Jews sent priests 
and Levites from Jerusalem to ask him 1 , ' Who art thou ?' And 
he confessed, and denied not, but confessed, * I am not the 
Christ.' And they asked him, ' What then ? Art thou Elias V 
and he saith, ' I am not.' — ' Art thou that prophet V and he 
answered, ' ivo.' k — John % i., 19. 

The rudiments of every language, therefore, must be given 
as^ a task, not as an amusement. — Goldsmith. 

Time we ought to consider as 1 a sacred trust committed to 
us by God, of which we are now the depositories, and [of 
which] we are to render an account at the last m . — Blair. 

True generosity is a duty as indispensably necessary as those a 
imposed upon us by law. — Goldsmith. 

To teach men to be orators, is little less than to teach them 
to be poets. — Id. 

Lysippus is told that his banker asks a debt of forty pounds , 
and that a distressed acquaintance petitions for the same sum. 
He gives it, without hesitating, to the latter ; for he demands 
as a favor what the former requires as a debt. — Id. 

The laws of eastern hospitality allowed them to enter, and 
the master welcomed them, like a man liberal and wealthy. 
He was skilful enough in appearances soon to discern , that 
they were no common guests, and spread his table with magni- 
ficence. — Dr. Johnson. 

The year before, he had so used the matter, that, what r by 
force, what by policy, he had taken from the Christians above 
thirty small castles. — Knolles. 

We exhorted them to trust in God, s and to love one an 
other x . — J. Campbell. 

With all due respect for the calculations of men of science, 1 

e An infinitive used as a conjunction. 

h A clause use<l as a conjunction. 

1 Verbs of asking and teaching and some others are followed by two objects, one a 
person, the other a thing ; here, Mm, and the following object clause. See Obs. 
and 7, Rule XX. 

k Exception 1, Rule XV. 

1 Obs. 7, page 102. 

m Infinitive phrase, used as an adjective attribute. 

n Subject of are understood. Obs. 7, Rule XVI. 

Obs. 7, Rule XX. This clause is a modification of the predicate. 

P An adjective followed by to understood. Obs. 5, Rule XXII. 

q To discern with its adjunct clause, modifies enough. 

' Obs. 19. Rule V. 

» Obs. 6, Rule XX. 

* Obs. 9, Rule III. 



CHAP. IV.] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 231 

cannot but remember"- that when most confident, they have 
sometimes erred. 

I could not do a better thing than to commend* this habit to 
my brethren as one closely connected with their own personal 
piety, and their usefulness in the world. — A. Barnes. 

It is a good practical rule to keep one's reading well propor- 
tioned™ in the two great divisions, prose and poetry. — H. Reid. 

For a prince to be reduced by villany to my distressful cir- 
cumstances*, is calamity enough. — Sallust. 

Who knows butY that God, who made the world, may cause 
that giant Despair may d\e?—Bunyan. 

What can be more strange than, that an ounce weight should 
balance hundreds of pounds, by the intervention of a few bar3 
of thin iron ? z 

This lovely land, this glorious liberty, these benign institu- 
tions, the dear purchase of our fathers, are ours ; ours to enjoy, 
ours to preserve, ours to transmit 3 -. — Webster. 

The knowledge of why they so exisfo, must be the last act 
of favor which time and toil will bestow. — Rush. 

To do what is right, with unperverted faculties, is ten times 6 
easier than to undo what is wrong. — Porter. 

And he charged them that they should tell no man& • but 
the more he charged them, so much the e more a great deal? 
they published it. — Mark, vii., 36. 

For in that he himself hath suffered being tempted^, he is 
able to succour them that are tempted. — Hebrews, xi., 18. 

It is not to inflate national vanity, nor to swell a light and 
empty feeling of self-importance; but it is, that we may judge 
justly of our situation and of our duties^, that I earnestly 
urge this consideration of our position and our character 
among the nations of the earth 1 . — Webster. 

I had rather believe all the fables in the Legend, and the 

« Remember is here infinitive and the object of but, a preposition equivalent to 
except; can auxiliary to do understood. 
v To commend with its adjuncts, subject of a verb understood. Obs. 7, Rule XVI. 
w Indirect attribute. Ob& 6, page 102. 

* Subject infinitive clause. Obs. 2, page 137. Exception 2, Eule XVII. 
y But, a preposition governing the following clause. 

* The clause introduced by that, is the subject of is understood. Obs. 7, Eule 
XVI. 

a Infinitives used as adjectives in the active, instead of the passive, voice. 
I A clause used as the object of a preposition. Obs. 3, page 112. 
c Adverbial modification of easier ; — a prepositional phrase, by being understood. 
d Double object. 

e Adverbial modification of more, itself modified by so much. Exception 1, 
Rule I. 
f Adverbial modification of more ; deal governed by by understood, 
K Clause used as the object of in. Obs. 3, page 112, 
h An adjective attribute clause. 
> Explanatory clause ; adjunct of it. 



232 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

Talmud, and the Alcoran, than that this universal frame is 
without a mindX. — Bacon. 

Nevertheless there being others, besides the first supposed 
author, men not unread nor unlearned in antiquity, who admit 
that for approved story, which the former explode for fiction ; 
and seeing that ofttimes relations heretofore accounted fabu- 
lous, have been after found to contain in them many footsteps 
and reliques of something true, as what we read in poets of 
the flood, and giants little believed, till undoubted witnesses 
taught us, that all was not feigned 1 ; I have therefore deter- 
mined to bestow the telling over even m of these repeated tales; 
be it for nothing else but in favour of our English poets and 
rhetoricians, who by their art will know how to use them judi- 
ciously. — Milton. 

That a nation should be so valorous and courageous to win 
their liberty in the field, and when they have won it, should be 
so heartless and unwise in their counsels, as not to know how 
to use it, value it, what to do with it, or with themselves ; but 
after ten or twelve years' prosperous war and contestation with 
tyranny, basely and besottedly to run their necks again into 
the yoke which they have broken, and prostrate all the fruits 
of their victory for nought at the feet of the vanquished, be- 
sides our loss of glory and such an example as kings or tyrants 
never yet had the like to boast of, will be an ignominy, if it 
befall us, that never yet befell any nation possessed of their 
liberty. — Id, 

II. POETRY. 

See the sole bliss Heaven could on all bestow, 

Which who but feels, can taste, but thinks can know ; 

Yet, poor with fortune, and with learning blind, 

The bad must miss, the good, untaught, will find. — Pope, 

Shame to mankind ! Philander had his foes ; 
He felt the truths I sing, and I, in him ; 
But he, nor I feel 3 - more. — Young. 

k Object clause, believe being understood. Without a mind is an adjective attri' 
buto referring to frame. 

i The part of this sentence ending with, feigned consists of two very complex inde- 
pendent phrases, connected by and, one absolute, introduced by then, and the other 
participial, introduced by seeing. The other part of the sentence which comes first 
in analysis, may be resolved into, 1, A, a, b, c, d, 2, e, f, B, 3; and the independent 
phrases in continuation, into, g, C, h, D, i, k, E, 4, omitting the very simple phrases. 

in The word even, as very frequently used, seems to perform the office of no part 
of speech, but to be emploved merely to give emphasis to the particular word or 
phrase which it precedes. Here it simply makes the phrase of these reputed tales 
emphatic. It has been designated by one author a "word of euphony ;" but with 
no apparent propriety since euphony and emphasis seem not to be necessarily iden- 
tical. It might perhaps be called a word of emphasis. 

a Obs. 2, Kale VIII. 



CHAP. IV,] SYNTAX. — ANALYSIS AND PAUSING. 233 

So reads he nature, whom the lamp of truth 
Illuminates : — thy lamp, mysterious Word ! 
Which whoso sees, no longer wanders lost, 
With intellect bemaz'd in endless doubt, 
But runs the road of wisdom. — Cowper, 

Yet O the thought, that thou art safe , and he ! 
That thought is joy, arrive what may to me. — Id. 

The bless'd to-day^- is as completely so, 

As who began a e thousand years ago?. — Pope. 

Full many a gem§ of purest ray serene 

The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear; 

Pull many a flower is born to blush unseen, 

And waste its sweetness on the desert air. — Gray. 

Then kneeling down to heaven's eternal King, 
The saint, the father, and the husband prays h ; 

Hope 'springs exulting ou triumphant wing,' 

That thus they all shall meet in future days. — Burns. 

He can't flatter, he ! 
An honest mind and plain ; he must speak truth ; 
Jin* they will hear it, so ; if not, he's plain. — Shah. 

Whatk ! canst thou not forbear me half an houfi ? 
Then get thee gone m , and dig my grave thyself. — Id. 

If still she loves thee, hoard that gem ; 
'Tis tvorth n thy vanish'd diadem. — Byron. 

He calls for Famine, and the meagre fiend 
Blows mildew from between his shriveVd lips , 
And taints the golden ear. — Cowper. 

Here he had need 
All circumspection ; and we now, no less, 
Choice in our suffrage ; for on whom we send , 
The weight of all, and our last hope relies. — Milton. 

b Cos., Note II., Enla XX. 

c Adjective clause modifying thougJit. 

d Blessed-to-day, is used here as a noun, equivalent to, The man who is blessed 
to-day. 

e Obs. 12, Eule I. 

f A thousand years ago is an independent phrase (absolute) ; ago being used fb* 
agone, gone, or past. 

s Obs. 3, Note II., Eule IV. 

h Exception 1, Eule XI. 

' Obs. 15, Eule I. 

k Obs. 15, Eule V. 

1 Obs 4, Eule XXII. 

«> Indirect attribute. Obs. 6, page 102. 

n Obs. 6. Rule XXII. 

• Obs. 3, page 112. 

20* 



234 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IIL 

Who wickedly is wise, or madly brave, 

Is but the? more a fool, the more a knave. — Pope, 

O God ! methinks^ it were a happy life 

To be no better than a homely swain ; 

To sit upon a hill, as I do now, 

To carve out dials quaintly, point by point, 

Thereby to see the minutes how they run. — Shale. 

Poor guiltless I ! and can I choose but smile*, 
When every coxcomb knows me by my style. — Pope, 

Me s miserable ! which way shall I fly 
Infinite wrath, and infinite despair ? — Milton. 
Ay, but to die*, aT1( j we g we know not where ; 
To lie in cold abstraction, and to rot ; 
This sensible warm motion to become 
A kneaded clod ; 

'tis too horrible. — Shah. 

My soul, turn from them — turn we u to survey 

Where roughest climes a nobler race display. — Goldsmith 

Cursed be J u that did so ! All the charms 

Of Sycorax, toads, beetles, bats, light 1 * on you? — Shale. 

Then thus my guide, in accent higher raised 
Than I before had heard him : 'Capaneus! 
Thou art more punish'd, in that this thy pride 
Lives yet unquencKd™ ; no torment, save thy rage, 
Were x to thy fury pain proportion'd full.' — Cary's Dante. 

Yet a few daysY, and thee, 
The all-beholding sun shall see no more 
In all his course ; nor yet, in the cold ground, 
Where thy pale form was laid with many tears, 
Nor in the embrace of ocean, shall exist 
Thy image. — Bryant. 

Nor then the solemn nightingale ceas'd warbling 7 -. — Milton. 

* . . 

r Exception 1, Eulo I. 

q Impersonal verb. Contracted from it thinks me,, a Latin idiom. Obs., page 98. 

r Smile, an infinitive governed by preposition but. 

« Exception to Eule XXV. See Obs. 3, Eule XVIII. 

t Infinitive absolute. Obs. 8, Eule XXIII. 

u Imperative, first person. See Obs., page 79. 

v Imperative, third person, plural. 

w Obs. 3, page 112. 

* Subjunctive mood used for the potential. 

y Independent phrase, days being absolute with being or passing understood. 

» Attribute. See Obs. 2, Eule XIV. 



CHAP. V.] SYNTAX. — QUESTIONS. 235 

CHAPTER V.— EXAMINATION. 
QUESTIONS ON SYNTAX. 

LESSON I. — DEFINITIONS. 

Of what does syntax treat? 

What is the relation of words ? — the agreement of words ? — the government o* 
words ? — the arrangement of words ? 

LESSON II. — THE RULES. 

How many special rules of syntax are there ? 

Of what do the first eighteen rules of syntax treat? 

Of what do the last eight rules principally treat? 

Where is the arrangement of words treated of? 

To what do articles relate ? 

What case is employed as the subject of a verb ? 

What agreement is required between words in apposition? 

To what do adjectives relate ? 

How does a pronoun agree with its antecedent ? 

How does a pronoun agree with a collective noun? 

How does a pronoun agree with joint antecedents ? 

How does a pronoun agree with disjunct antecedents ? 

LESSON HI. — THE EULES. 

How does a verb agree with its subject or nominative? 

How does a verb agree with a collective noun ? 

How does a verb agree with joint nominatives ? ' 

How does a verb agree with disjunct nominatives? 

What agreement is required, when verbs are connected? 

How are participles employed? 

To what do adverbs relate ? 

What is the use of conjunctions? 

What is the use of prepositions ? 

To what do interjections relate ? 

LESSON IV. — THE EULES. 

By what is the possessive case governed ? 

What case do active-transitive verbs govern ? 

What case is put after other verbs ? 

What case do prepositions govern ? 

What governs the infinitive mood ? 

What verbs take the infinitive after them without the preposition to I 

When is a noun or pronoun put absolute ? 

Wiiea should the subjunctive mood be employed ? 

LESSON V. — THE EULES. 

What are the several titles, or subjects, of the twenty-six rules ? 

What says Eule 1st?— Eule 2d?— Eule 3d?— Eule 4th?— Eule 5th?— Eule 
6th?— Eule 7th?— Eule 8th?— Eule 9th?— Eule 10th?— Eule 11th ?— Eule 
12th?— Eule 13th?— Eule 14th?— Eule 15th?— Eule 16th?— Eule 17th?— 
Eule 18th?— Eule 19th?— Eule 20th?— Eule 21st?— Eule 22d?— Euie 23d? 
—Eule 24th?— Eule 25th?— Eule 26th? 

LESSON VI. — EXCEPTIONS. 

What are the general contents of chapters second and third of this code of 
syntax ? 

What are the nature and purpose of the notes to the rules ? 

What is said of the correction of false syntax. 

How many and what exceptions are there to Eule 1st ?— to Eule 2d ?-^to 
Eule 3d?— to Eule 4th?— to Eule 5th? -to Eule 6th?— to Eule 7th?— to 
Rule 8th?— to Eule 9th?— to Eule 10th?— to Eule 11th?— to Eule i2th?~ 



236 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAET III. 

to Rule 18th ?-*-to Rule 14th ?— to Rule 15th ?— to Eule 16th ?— to Eule 

17th?— to Eule 18th. 

[Now explain and correct orally all the false syntax placed under the Eules and 
Notes; learning for each lesson about thirty examples, and reciting them without re>- 
currence to the Key during the exercise.] 

LESSON VII. — OBSEEVATTONS. 

What is observed of the placing of Articles? — Nominatives? — Words in Ap- 
position ? — Adjectives ? — Pronouns ? — Verbs ? — Participles ? — Adverbs ?— 
Conjunctions ? — Prepositions ? — Interjections ? — Possessives ? — Objectives ? 
— Same Cases ? — Infinitives ? 

Under how many and what circumstances are nouns put absolute ? 
[Now read all the other observations, so as to be able to refer to them if necessary ; 

and then parse and analyze the examples commencing at page 229.] 



CHAPTEE VI— FOR WRITING. 

EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 

|§F" ["When the pupil has been sufficiently exercised in syntactical parsing, and 
has corrected orally, according to the formules given, all the examples of false syntax 
designed for oral exercises; he should write out the following exercises, correcting 
them according to the principles of syntax given in the rules and notes.] 

EXERCISE I.— ARTICLES. 

Christianity claims an heavenly origin. 

An useless excellence is a contradiction in terras. 

It would have an happy influence on genius. 

Part not with a old friend for an new acquaintance. 

Justice eyes not the parties, but cause. 

I found in him a friend, and not mere promiser. 

These fathers lived in the fourth and following century. 

The rich and poor are seldom intimate. 

The Bible contains the Old and the New Testaments. 

An elegant and florid style are very different. 

The humility is a deep which no man can fathom. 

The true cheerfulness is the privilege of the innocence. 

A devotion is a refuge from a human frailty. 

The duplicity and the friendship are not congenial. 

The familiarity with the vicious fosters a vice. 

A forced happiness is a solecism in the terms. 

The favourites are generally the objects of the envy. 

An equivocation is a mean and a sneaking vice. 

He sent an other and rather a more modest letter. 

The flatterers are put to a flight by an adversity. 

An obstinacy is unfavourable to the discovery oi the truth. 

The conic sections are a part of the geometry. 

What is the proper meaning of a Landgrave? 

Sensuality is one kind of pleasure, such an one as it is. 

What sovereign assumes the title of an Autocrat 1 



CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 237 

Believe me, the man is less a fool than a knave. 
He is a much deeper deceiver than a sufferer. 
Laziness is a greater thief than pickpocket. 
Heroes who then flourished, have passed away. 
Time which is to come, may not come to us. 

EXERCISE IL— NOUNS. 

A friend should bear a friends infirmities'. 

Deviations' from rectitude are approaches to sin. 

Crafty person's often entrap themselves. 

Mens mind's seem to be somewhat variously constituted 

The great doctors, adept's in science, often disagree. 

The two men were ready to cut each others' throats. 

We went at the rate of five mile an hour. 

His income is a thousand pound a year. 

Eive bushel of wheat are worth forty shilling. 

Reading is one mean's of acquiring knowledge. 

The well is at least ten fathom deep. 

I shall be a hundred mile off by that time. 

Wisdom and Folly's votaries travel different roads. 

The true philanthropist is all mankind's friend. 

He desires the whole human race's happiness. 

The idler and the spendthrift's faults are similar. 

A good mans words inflict no injury. 

Be not generous at other peoples expense. 

True hope is swift, and flies with swallows wings. 

Lifes current holds its course, and never returns. 

Many assume Virtues livery, who shun her service. 

I left the parcel at Richardson's, the bookseller's. 

The books are for sale at Samuel Wood's & Sons'. 

Where shall we find friendship like David's and Jonathan's ? 

Acquiesce for peace's and harmony's sake. 

The moons disk often appears larger than the sun. 

Consult Sheridan, Johnson, and Walker's Dictionary. 

Such was my uncle's agent's wife's economy. 

A frugal plenty marks the wise mans board. 

This mob, for honesty sake, broke open all the prisons. 

Our sacks shall be a mean's to sack the city. 

Such was the economy of the wife of the agent of my uncle. 

These emmet's, how little they are in our eyes ! 

Childrens minds may be easily overloaded. 

EXERCISE III— ADJECTIVES. 

A palmistry at which this vermin are very dexterous. 
These kind of knaves I know. — Shaksjpeare. 



2SS INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III 

Vanity has more subjects than any of the passions. 

The vain are delighted with fashionable and new dresses. 

So highly did they esteem this goods. 

Washington has been honoured more than any American, 

Which is the loftier of the Asiatic mountains 1 

This ashes they were very careful to preserve. 

Is not she the younger of the three sisters 1 

Could not some less nobler plunder satisfy thee 1 

I can assign a more satisfactory and stronger reason. 

Peter was older than any of the twelve apostles. 

Peace of mind is easier lost than gained. 

Of this victuals he was always very fond. 

Man has more wants than any animal. 

Of all other practical rules this is the most complex. 

Is not the French more fashionable than any language? 

Vice never leads to old honoured age. 

Cloths of a more inferior quality are more salable. 

This is found in no book published previous to mine* 

He turned away with the most utmost contempt. 

Time glides swift and imperceptible away. 

Of their more ulterior measures I know nothing. 

My three last letters were never answered. 

Fortune may frown on the most superior genius. 

It becomes a gentleman to speak correct. 

The most loftiest mountain is Mont Blanc. 

If a man acts foolish, is he to be esteemed wise % 

Drop your acquaintance with them bad boys. 

They sat silently and motionless an hour and a hal£ 

Quiet minds, like smooth water, reflect clear. 

True faith, true policy, united ran ; 

This was but love of God, and that of man. 

EXERCISE IV.— PRONOUNS. 
Him that presumes much, has much to fear. 
They best can bear reproof, whom merit praise. 
A few pupils, older than me, excited my emulation. 
Every man will find themselves in the state of Adam. 
None are more rich than them who are content. 
Scotland and thee did in each other live. 
These trifles they do not deserve our attention. 
Truth is ever to be preferred for it's own sake. 
Thou art afraid — else, what ails you 1 
It is not Lemuel, but God, whom you have offended. 
All things which have life, aspire to God. 
So great was the multitude who followed him. 



CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX.-— EXERCISES. 2S< 

He which would advance, should not look backwards. 
It was Sir Billy — who is an other name for a fop. 
I take up the arguments in the order they stand. 
There is nothing, with respect to me, and such as me. 
He that is bribed, the people will abhor. 
The day when the accident happened, is not recorded. 
We know not who to trust ; them who seem fair, are false. 
The reason I told it was this : thee was in danger. 
I did not know the precise time when it occurred. 
Here he answers the question, who asks it. 
Who who beheld the outrage, could remain inactive ? 
This was the prison where we were confined. 
I could not believe but what it was a reality. 
It was the boys, and not the dog, which broke the baslu. 
An unprincipled junto is not nice about thtir means. 
The people forced its way, and demanded its rights. 
Avoid lightness and frivolity : it is allied to folly. 
Either wealth or power may ruin their possessor. 
It was Joseph, him whom Pharaoh promoted. 
Origen's mother hid his clothes, to prevent him going. 
Him that withholdeth corn, the people shall curse him, 
He that withholdeth corn the people shall curse* 
I have always thought ye honest till now. 
Me being out a boy, they took no notice of me. 
They that receive me, I will richly reward. 
Had it been them, they would have stopped. 
Vain pomp and glory of this world, I hate ye. 
It was not me, that gave you that answer. 
Between you and I, he is a greater thief than author- 
Any dunce can copy what you or me shall write. 
You seem to forget who you are talking to. 
Thee being, «, stranger, the child was afraid. 
This was the most remarkable event which occurred. 
Happy are them whose pleasure is their duty. 

EXERCISE V.— VERBS. 

Where was you standing during the transaction % 

Was you there when the pistol was fired 1 

Thou sees how little difference there are. 

If he have failed, it was not through my neglect. 

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 

There was many reasons for not disturbing my repose. 

The train of brass artillery and other ordnance, are immense 

Art thou the man that earnest from Judah 1 

What eye those long, long labyrinths dare explore \ 



240 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

Magnus and his friends was barbarously treated. 

The propriety of these restrictions, are unquestionable. 

And I am one that believe the doctrine. 

Thou wast he that leddest out and broughtest in Israel. 

Beauty without virtue generally prove a snare. 

If thou means to advance, eye those before thee. 

A qualification for high offices, come not of indolence. 

The desires of right reason is bounded by competency. 

Useless studies is nothing but a busy idleness. 

Is virtue, then, and piety the same 1 

So awful an admonition was these miraculous words. 

If the great body of the people thinks otherwise. 

A committee are a body that have only a delegated power. 

In peace of mind consists our strength and happiness. 

There is no slander, where love and unity is maintained. 

His character, as well as his doctrines, were assailed. 

Proof, and not assertion, are what are required. 

Right reason and truth is always in unison. 

No pains nor cost were spared to make it grand. 

Ignorance stupifies, and is the source of many crimes. 

■ Then wanders forth the sons 

Of Belial, flown with insolence and wine. 
What you must chiefly rely on, is the attested facts. 
No axe or hammer have ever awakened an echo her*, 
Did not she send, and gave you this information 1 
Their honours are departing and come to an end. 
Neither wit, nor taste, nor learning, appear in it. 
Caligula sat himself up for a deity. 
A tortoise requested the eagle to learn him to fly. 
'O, that it was always spring V said little Robert. 
I at first intended to have arranged it in a new form. 
The gaoler supposed that the prisoners had been flecL 
Peter saw a vessel, as it had been a great sheet. 
Peace and esteem is all that age can hope. 

Alas ! no wife or mother's care 

For him the milk or corn prepare. 

Thou bark that sails with man ! 

Haste, haste to cleave the seas. 

EXERCISE VII.— PARTICIPLES. 

What dost thou mean by shaking of thy head? 
A good end warrants not using bad means. 
Be cautious in forming of connexions. 
The worshiping the two calves was still kept up. 



CHAP. VL] SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 241 

In reading of his lecture, he was much embarrassed. 

This devoting ourselves to God, must be habitual. 

Their estimating the prize too highly, was evident. 

He declared the project to be no less than a tempting God c 

Every deviation from virtue is approaching to vice. 

It is extremely foolish boasting of immoral achievements. 

It was the refusing all communion with paganism. 

Our deepest knowledge is knowing ourselves. 

He wilfully neglects the obtaining unspeakable good. 

Retaliating injuries is multiplying offences. 

These things are certain : there is no denying facts. 

Publicly vindicating error is openly adopting it. 

On his father asking him who it was, he answered, 'L' 

Thus shall we escape being defeated and ruined. 

Being unjustly liberal is ostentatious pride. 

Wisdom teaches justly appreciating of all things. 

The procuring these benefits, was a gratuitous act, 

Doing good, disinterested good, is not our trade. 

Such a renouncing the world is a pernicious delusion. 

Freely indulging the appetite impairs the intellect. 

The Acts mention Paul preaching of Christ at Damascus,, 

The Acts mention Paul's preaching Christ at Damascus. 

The Acts mention Paul preaching Christ at Damascus. 

Constantly beholding objects prevents our admiring them. 

We purpose taking that route when we go» 

What was the cause of the young woman fainting 1 

I perceived somebody's creeping through the fence. 

I was aware of them intending to arrest me. 

We saw some mischievous boys' worrying of a cat. 

To pursue fashion, is chasing a bird on the wing. 

Being very positive, is no real proof of a stable mind* 

By establishing good laws, our peace is secured. 

Distinctness is important in delivering orations. 

He guarantied the permission we demanded being granted 

For the easier reading the numbers in the table. 

Recovering the first surprise, however, we entered boldly, 

EXERCISE Vn.— ADVERBS, &c. 

Respect is lost often by the means used to obtain it, 
Such were the views of the then ministry. 
Raillery must be very nice to not offend. 
Ye know how that it is an unlawful thing. 
From hence I infer that they were going there. 
Quaint sayings are long remembered often. 
I cannot tell you whether Jhis is the fact or no, 

U 



242 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART Hi. 

Valleys are more fertile generally than mountains. 

A qualification of usefulness is acquired with study. 

Frequent transgression makes men slaves of sin. 

Let nothing induce you ever to utter a falsehood. 

The idle are. of necessary consequence, ignorant. 

The wind came about so as we could make no way. 

Zealots seldom are distinguished by charity. 

Study is as necessary and even more so than instruction. 

I never have, and never shall be compensated. 

Humility neither seeks the first place or the last word. 

He has never told me nothing more of the matter. 

These men ranked highly among the nobility. 

Their bodies are so solid and hard, as you need not fear. 

Of her brother's political life previously to this event. 

Attainments made easily, are not of much value often. 

He has no other merit but that of a compiler. 

Venus appears uncommonly brightly to-night. 

Men cannot be forced neither into or out-of true faith. 

To this man we may commit safely our cause. 

One crime cannot be a proper remedy to another. 

Venus is not quite as large as the Earth. 

It is thinking makes what we read our own. 

Quagmires have smooth surfaces commonly. 

He was so much offended, as he would not speak to m% 

I have put my words in thy mouth. 

How wilt thou put thy trust on Egypt for chariots? 

EXERCISE VIII.— PROMISCUOUS. 

In his fathers reign, they were connected and joined 

What is the Earth and its dimensions % 

He is a great deal heavier man than I. 

The citizens were never denied the privilege. 

Thankful to Heaven that thou wert left behind. 

I have met with few who understood men equal to him. 

He was then recently returned from the east victorious. 

He hoped that money should have been given him. 

Laws may, and frequently are made against drunkenness* 

He appeared in an human shape. 

I do not attempt explaining the mysteries of religion. 
Ere matter, time, or place were known, 
Thou sway'dst these spacious realms alone. 

One of the wisest persons that hath been among thena. 

What is it else but to reject all authority % 

They advocate distinctions unworthy any free state. 

It would not, and ought not, be fej& 



CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX.— EXEKCISES. 243 

Them who saw the disaster, were greatly alarmed. 

He knew none fitter to be their judge but himself. 

Record the names of every one present. 

We doubt not but we will satisfy the impartial. 

But time and chance happeneth to them all. 

You was in hopes to have succeeded to the inheritance. 

To make light of a small fault, are to commit a greater. 

Judge not before hearing of the cause. 

Clear articulation is requisite in publicly speaking. 

God is the avenger of all breach of faith and injustice. 

I had a letter began, and nearly half wrote. 

It is better being suspected than being guilty. 

Declare the past and present state of things. 

To insult the afflicted are impious and barbarous. 

Goodness, and not greatness, lead to happiness. 

It is pride who whispers, ' What will they think of me? 

In judging of others, charity should be exercised. 

Zanies are willing to befool, to please fools. 

Questions are easier proposed than answered rightly. 
He forms his schemes the flood of vice to stem, 
But preaching Jesus is not one of them. — J. Taylor, 

EXERCISE IX.— PROMISCUOUS. 
The property of the rebels were confiscated. 
He was extreme covetous in all his dealings. 
There were no less than thirty islands. 
The plot was the easier detected. 
Of all the books mine has the fewer blots. 
Who does the house belong to ? 
Is this the person whom you say was present 1 
Knowledge is only to be acquired by application. 
Policy often prevails upon force. 
These men were seen enter the house in the night. 
These works are Cicero, the most eloquent of men's, 
Thomas has bought a bay large horse. 
Your gold and silver is cankered. 
Now abideth faith, hope, and charity. 
And, him destroyed, all this will follow. 
There is no need for your assistance. 
To whom our fathers would not obey. 
Where can we find such an one as this 1 
They sat out early on their journey. 
Philosophers have often mistook the source of happiness. 
The books are as old, and perhaps older, than tradition. 
This chapter is divided in sections. 



244 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART lit 

I shall treat you as I have them. 

A prophet mightier than him. 

Neither he or his brother is capable of it. 

Richelieu profited of every circumstance. 

What was the cause of the girl screaming ? 

Let him and I have half of them. 

I wrote to, and cautioned the captain against it. 

Nothing is more lovelier than virtue. 

He that is diligent, you should commend. 

They ride faster than us. 

Which of them grammars do you like best ? 

Neither of these are the meaning intended. 

Did you understand who I was speaking of? 

Whosoever of you will be chiefest, shall be servant of all. 

Remember what thou wert, and be humble. 
Was I deceived 1 or did a sable cloud 
Turn forth her silver lining on the night 1 — Milton. 

EXERCISE X.— PROMISCUOUS. 

Changed to a worser shape thou canst not be. 

For him through hostile camps I bend my way, 
Eor him thus prostrate at thy feet I lay. — Pope, 
Thus oft by mariners are shown 
Earl Godwin's castles overflown. — Swift. 

No civil broils have, since his death, arose. 

Nor thou, that flings me floundering from thy back. 

Who should I see but the doctor ! 

That which once was thee. 

To wish him wrestle with affection. 

So much she fears for William's life, 

That Mary's fate she dare not mourn. — Prior. 

Phalaris, who was so much older than her. 

They would have given him such satisfaction in other parti- 
culars, as a full and happy peace must have ensued. 

The woman which we saw, is very amiable. 

The three first classes have read. 

An union in that which is permanent. 

Among every class of people self-interest prevails. 

Such conduct is a disgrace of their profession. 

His education has been neglected much. 

There is no other bridge but the one we saw. 

He went and laid down to sleep. 

Whom do men say that I am 1 

Take to you handfuls of ashes of the furnace, and let Moses 
sprinkle it towards the heaven in the sight of Pharaoh. 



CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX. — EXERCISES. 2^5 

In eulogizing of the dead, he slandered the living. 

If a dog both give the first turn and the last, he shall win. 

Neither the virtuous or the vicious are exempt from trials. 

He spoke as if he was in a passion. 

Let him take heed lest he fails. 

We have all swerved out-of the path of duty. 

I cannot agree with him neither. 

He both wrote sermons and plays. 

If a man say, ' I love God,' and hateth his brother, he is a liai 

He has long ago forsaken that party. 

It was proved to be her that opened the letter. 

Is not this the same man whom we met before? 

I forego my claim for peace's sake. 

For thou art a girl as much brighter than her, 
As she was a poet sublimer than me. — Prion 

EXERCISE XL— PROMISCUOUS. 

There remains two points to be settled. 

I could not avoid frequently using it. 

The Athenians were naturally obliging and agreeable; they 
were cheerful among each other, and humane to their infe- 
riors. — Goldsmith. 

I hope it is not me thou art displeased with. 

I never before saw such large trees. 

My paper is Ulysses his bow, in which every man of wit and 
learning may try his strength. — Addison. 
'Twas thee, whom once Stagyra's grove 
Oft with her sage allur'd to rove. — Scott of Amwell. 

I could not observe by what gradations other men proceeded 
in their acquainting themselves with truth. — Locke. 

I will show you the way how it is done. 

Imprinting, if it signify any thing, is nothing else but the mak- 
ing certain truths to be perceived. — Locke. 

This arose from the young man associating with bad people. 

Him that never thinks, never can be wise. 

It was John's the Baptist head that was cut off. 

The Jews are Abraham's, Isaac's, and Jacob's posterity. 

Two architects were once candidates for the building a certain 
temple at Athens. 

This treatise is extreme elaborate. 

Them descending, the ladder fell. 

The scaling ladder of sugared words are set against them. 

One or both was there. 

What sort of an animal is that ? 

21* 



246 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

These things should be never separated. 

His excuse was admitted of by his master. 

It is not me that he is engaged with. 

1 intended to have rewarded him according to his merits. 

They would become sooner proficients in Latin. 

There is many different opinions concerning it. 

There are many in town richer than her. 

Let you and I be as little at variance as possible. 

A coalman, by waking of one of these gentlemen, saved him 

from ten years imprisonment. 
If a man's temper was at his own disposal, he would not choose 

to be of either of these parties. 

The birds their notes renew, and bleating herds 
Attest their joy, that hill and valley rings. — Milton. 

EXERCISE XII.— PROMISCUOUS. 

But we of the nations beg leave to differ with them. 
This is so easy and trivial, as it is a shame to mention it. 
You was once quite blind ; you neither saw your disease or 
your remedy. 

Fluttering his pennons vain, plumb down he drops 

Ten thousand fathom deep. — Milton. 
The properties of the mirror depends on reflected light. 
Was you present at the last meeting % 
Hence has arisen much stiffness and affectation. 
The nation are powerful both by sea and land. 
Those set of books was a valuable present. 
The box contained forty piece of muslin. 
She is much the taller of the three. 
They are both remarkable tall men. 
A mans manners may be pleasing, whose morals are bad. 
True politeness has it's seat in the heart. 
He presented him a humble petition. 
I do not intend to turn a critic on this occasion. 
At first sight we took it to be they. 
The certificate was wrote on parchment. 
I have often swam across the river. 
I have written four long letters yesterday. 
I expected to have seen you last week, but I was disappointed. 
We are besat by dangers on all sides. 
My father and him were very intimate. 
Unless he acts prudently, he will not succeed. 
It was no sooner said but done. 
Let neither partiality or prejudice appear. 



CHAP. VI.] SYNTAX.— EXERCISES. 247 

The obligation was ceased long before. 

How exquisitely is this all performed in Greek ! 

"Who, when they came to Mount Ephraim, to the house of 

Micah, they lodged there 
I prevailed with your father to consent. 
Always act as justice and honour requires. 
Them that transgress the rules, will be punished. 
With him is wisdom and strength. 
My conductor answered, that it was him. 

Be thou, O lovely isle ! forever true 

To him who more than faithful was to you. — SouthwicK 

The joys of love, are they not doubly thine, 

Ye poor! whose health, whose spirits ne'er decline %-^Id* 

EXERCISE XIII.— PROMISCUOUS. 

Having once .suffered the disgrace, it is felt no longer. 

The meanness or the sin will scarce be dissuasives. 

Both temper and distemper consists of contraries. 

Which is the cause, the writer or the reader's vanity ? 

The commission of a generalissimo was also given him. 

The queen's kindred is styled gentlefolks. 

They agree as to the fact, but differ in assigning of reasons. 

Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished. 

The inquiry is worthy the attention of every scholar. 

Young twigs are easier bent than boughs. 

It is not improbable but there are more attractive powers. 

By this means an universal ferment was excited. 

Who were utterly unable to pronounce some letters, and others 

very indistinctly. — Sheridan. 
All vessels on board of which any person has been sick or 

died, perform quarantine. 
Serverus forbid his subjects to change their religion for that 

of the Christian or Jewish. — Jones's Ch. Hist. 
Magnus, with four thousand of his supposed accomplices, were 

put to death without a trial. — Id. 
Art not thou that Egyptian which before these days madest an 

uproar, and leddest out into the wilderness four thousand 

men that were murderers 1 — Acts, xxiii, 38. 
Attempting to deceive children into instruction of this kind, 

is only deceiving ourselves. — Goldsmith. 
There came a woman, having an alabaster box of ointment 

of spikenard, very precious ; and she brake the box and 

poured it on his head. — Marie, xiv, 3. 
My essays, of all my other works, are the most current. 



248 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART III. 

We would suggest the importance of every member, individu- 
ally, using his influence. 

Thy sumptuous buildings, and thy wife's attire, 
Hath cost a mass of public treasure. — Shakspeare. 

EXERCISE XIV.— PROMISCUOUS. 

This people who-knoweth not the law, are cursed. 
The people shall be forgiven their iniquity. — Bible. 
Having been denied the favours which they were promised. 
Hold, Rosaline, this favour thou shalt wear ; 
Hold, take you this, my sweet, and give me thine. 
Rely not on any man's fidelity, who is unfaithful to God. 
The rules are full as concise, and more clear than before. 
For they knew all that his father was a Greek. — Acts. 
Thrice was Csesar offered the crown. 
Eor a mine undiscovered, neither the owner of the ground, or 

any body else, are ever the richer. 
Death may be sudden to him, though it comes by never so 

slow degrees. 
A brute or a man are an other thing when they are alive, from 

what they are when dead. — Hale. 
I have known the having confessed inability, become the occa- 
sion of confirmed impotence. — Taylor. 
I am exceeding joyful in all our tribulation. — 2 Cor., vii, 4. 
If so much power, wisdom, goodness, and magnificence, is dis- 
played in the material creation, which is the least consider- 
able part of the universe ; how great, how wise, how good 
must he be, who made and governs the whole ! 
A good poet no sooner communicates his works, but it is im- 
agined he is a vain young creature, given up to the ambi- 
tion of fame. — Pope. . 
This was a tax upon himself for the not executing the laws. 
O my people, that dwellest in Zion ! be not afraid. — Bible, 
As rushing out-of doors, to be resolved, 
If Brutus so unkindly knock'd or no. — Shakspeare. 
His wrath, which one day will destroy ye both. — Milton* 
I know thee not — nor ever saw, till now, 
Sight more detestable than him and thee. — Id. 
The season when to come, and when to go, 
To sing, or cease to sing, we never know. — Pope. 



CHAP. I.] PKOSODY — PUNCTUATION.— COMMA. 249 

PART IV. 
PKOSODY. 

Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, figures, and 
versification. 



CHAPTER I.— PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing composition, by 
points, or stops, for the purpose of showing more clearly 
the sense and relation of the words, and of noting the 
different pauses and inflections required in reading. 

The following are the principal points, or marks ; the 
Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], the 
Period [.], the Dash [ — ], the Eroteme, or Note of In- 
terrogation [?], the Ecphoneme, or Note of Exclamation 
[!], and the Curves, or Marks of Parenthesis [()]. 

Obs. — The pauses that are made in the natural flow of speech, have, in 
reality, no definite and invariable proportions. Children are often told to 
pause at a comma -while they might count one ; at a semicolon, one, two • at 
a colon, one, tiw, three ; at a period, one, two, three, four. This may be of 
some use, as teaching them to observe their stops that they may catch the 
sense; but the standard itself is variable, and so are the times which good 
sense gives to the points. As a final stop, the period is immeasurable. The 
following general direction is as good as any that can be given. 

The Comma denotes the shortest pause; the Semi- 
colon, a pause double that of the comma ; the Colon, a 
pause double that of the semicolon ; and the Period, or 
Fall Stop, a pause double that of the colon. The 
pauses required by the other marks, vary according to 
the structure of the sentence, and their place in it. They 
may be equal to any of the foregoing. 

SECTION" I. — OF THE COMMA. 

The Comma is used to separate those parts of a sen- 
tence, which are so nearly connected in sense, as to be 
only one degree removed from that close connexion 
which admits no point 

11* 



250 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IT. 

Eule I. — Simple Sentences. 

A simple sentence does not, in general, admit the comma; 
as, " The weakest reasoners are the most positive." — W. Allen. 

Exception. — When the nominative in a long simple sentence 
is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, a comma should be 
placed before the verb ; as, " The assemblage of these vast 
bodies, is divided into different systems." 

Rule II. — Simple Members. 

The simple members of a compound sentence, whether suc- 
cessive or involved, elliptical or complete, are generally di- 
vided by the comma ; as, 

1. "He speaks eloquently, and he acts wisely." 

2. " The man, when he saw this, departed." 

3. " It may, and it often does happen." 

4. " That life is long, which answers life's great end." 

5. " As thy days, so shall thy strength be." 
Exception 1. — When a relative immediately follows its an- 
tecedent, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should 
not be introduced before it ; as, " The things which are seen, 
are temporal ; but the things which are not seen, are eternal." 
—2 Cor., iv, IB. 

Exception 2. — When the simple members are short, and 
closely connected by a conjunction or a conjunctive adverb, the 
comma is generally omitted ; as, " Infamy is worse than death." 
■ — " Let him tell me whether the number of the stars be even 
or odd." 

Rule III. — More than Two Words. 

When more than two words or terms are connected in the 
same construction, by conjunctions expressed or understood, 
the comma should be inserted after every one of them but the 
last ; and if they are nominatives before a verb, the comma 
should follow the last also : as, 

1. " Who, to the enraptur'd heart, and ear, and eye, 

Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody." 

2. "Ah! what avails ****** 

All that art, fortune, enterprise, can bring, 

If envy, scorn, remorse, or pride, the bosom wring V 

3. " Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible ; 

Thou, stern, obdurate, flinty, rough, remorseless." 

4. " She plans, provides, expatiates, triumphs there." 

Obs. — Two or more words are in the same construction, when they have a 
common dependence on some other term, and are parsed alike. 



CHAP. I.] PROSODY.— PUNCTUATION.— COMMA. 251 

Rule IV. — Only Two Words. 

When only two words or terms are connected by a con- 
junction, they should not be separated by the comma ; as, 
" Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul." — Goldsmith. 

Exception 1. — When the two words connected have several 
adjuncts, or when one of them has an adjunct that relates not 
to both, the comma is inserted ; as, " Honesty in his dealings, 
and attention to his business, procured him both esteem and; 
wealth." — " Who is applied to persons, or things personified." 
— JBullio?is. 

Exception 2. — -When the two words connected are emphat* 
ically distinguished, the comma is inserted ; as, 

" Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand." — Beattie. 
"'Tis certain he could write, and cipher too." — Goldsmith. 

Exception 3. — When there is merely an alternative of words, 
the comma is inserted; as, "We saw a large opening, or inlet." 

Exception 4. — When the conjunction is understood, the 
comma is inserted ; as, 

" She thought the isle that gave her birth, 
The sweetest, wildest land on earth." — Hogg. 

Rule V. — Words in Pairs. 

When successive words are joined in pairs by conjunctions, 
they should be separated in pairs by the comma ; as, " Interest 
and ambition, honour and shame, friendship and enmity, grat- 
itude and revenge, are the prime movers in public transao 
tions." — W. Allen, 

Rule VI. — Words put Absolute. 

Nouns or pronouns put absolute, should, with their adjuncts, 
"be set off by the comma ; as, " The prince, his father being 
dead, succeeded." — "This done, we parted." — "Zaccheus, make 
haste and come down." — "His proctorship in Sicily, what did 
it produce 1 ?" — Cicero. 

Rule VII. — Words in Apposition. 

Words put in apposition, (especially if they have adjuncts,) 
are generally set off by the comma ; as, " He that now calls 
upon thee, is Theodore, the hermit of Teneriffe^ — Johnson. 

Exception 1. — When several words, in their common order, 
are used as one compound name, the comma is not inserted; 
as, " Samuel Johnson," — " Publius Gavius Cosanus." 

Exception 2. — When a common and a proper name are 
closely united, the comma is not inserted j as, "The brook 



252 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 

Kidron," — "The river Don," — "The empress Catharine," — • 
" Paul the apostle." 

Exception 3. — When a pronoun is added to another word 
merely for emphasis and distinction, the comma is not inserted; 
as, " Ye men of Athens," — " I myself," — " Thou flaming min- 
ister," — " You princes." 

Exception 4. — When a name acquired by some action or re- 
lation, is put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun, 
the comma is not inserted: as, "I made the ground my bed ;" 
— " To make him king ;" — " Whom they revered as God;" — • 
" With modesty thy guide." — Pope. 

Rule VIII. — Adjectives. 

Adjectives, when something depends on them, or when they 
have the import of a dependent clause, should, with their ad- 
juncts, be set off by the comma ; as, 
1. " Among the roots 

Of hazel, pendent o'er the plaintive stream, 

They frame the first foundation of their domes." — Thorn. 
2. — " Up springs the lark, 

Shrill voiced and loud, the messenger of morn." — Id. 

Exception. — When an adjective immediately follows its 
noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should 
not be used before it ; as, 

" On the coast averse from entrance." — Milton, 

Rule IX. — Finite Verbs. 

Where a finite verb is understood, a comma is generally 
required : as, " From law arises security ; from security, 
curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge." — Murray. 

Rule X. — Infinitives. 

The infinitive mood, when it follows a verb from which ifc 
must be separated, or when it depends on something remote 
or understood, is generally, with its adjuncts, set off by the 
comma; as, "His delight was, to assist the distressed." — "To 
conclude, I was reduced to beggary." 
" The Governor of all — has interposed, 
Not seldom, his avenging arm, to smite 
The injurious trampler upon nature's law." — Coioper. 

Rule XI. — Participles. 
Participles, when something depends on them, when they 
have the import of a dependent clause, or when they relate to 



CHAP, l] prosody.— punctuation.— comma. 253 

something understood, should, with their adjuncts, be set off 
by the comma ; as, 

1. " Young Edwin, lighted by the evening star, 

Lingering and list'ning, wander'd down the vale." — Beattie. 

2. " United, we stand ; divided, we fall." 

3. "Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance." 
Exception. — When a participle immediately follows its noun, 

and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma should not be 

used before it ; as, 

" A man renowned for repartee, 
Will seldom scruple to make free 
W x ith friendship's finest feeling." — Cowper. 

Rule XII. — Adverbs. 
Adverbs, when they break the connexion of a simple sen* 
tence, or when they have not a close dependence on some par- 
ticular word in the context, should be set off by the comma ; 
as, " We must not, hoivever^ confound this gentleness with the 
artificial courtesy of the world." — " Besides, the mind must be 
employed." — Gilpin. "Most unquestionably \ no fraud was 
equal to all this."— Lyttelton. 

Rule XIII. — Conjunctions. 

Conjunctions, when they are separated from the principal 
clause that depends on them, or when they introduce an exam- 
ple, are generally set off by the comma ; as, "But, by a timely 
call upon Religion, the force of Habit was eluded." — Johnson. 

Rule XIV. — Prepositions. 

Prepositions and their objects, when they break the con- 
nexion of a simple sentence, or when they do not closely fol- 
low the words on which they depend, are generally set off by 
the comma ; as, " Fashion is, for the most part,, nothing but the 
ostentation of riches." — "By reading, we add the experience of 
others to our own." 

Rule XV. — Interjections. 
Interjections are sometimes set off by the comma ; as, " For, 
lo, I will call all the families of the kingdoms of the north." — 
Jeremiah, i, 15. 

Rule XVI. — Words Repeated. 

A word emphatically repeated, is generally set off by the 
comma; as, "Happy, happy, happy pair!" — Dryden. "Ah I 
no, no, no." — Id. 

22 



254 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IT. 

Rule XVII. — Dependent Quotations. 

A quotation or observation, when it is introduced by a verb, 
(as, say, reply, and the like,) is generally separated from the 
rest of the sentence by the comma ; as, " ' The book ot nature,' 
said he, ' is open before thee.' " — " I say unto all, Watch." 

SECTION II. — OF THE SEMICOLON, 

The Semicolon is used to separate those parts of a 
compound sentence, which are neither so closely con- 
nected as those which are distinguished by the comma, 
nor so little dependent as those which require the colon. 

Rule I. — Compound Members. 

When several compound members, some or all of which 
require the comma, are constructed into a period, they are 
generally separated by the semicolon : as, " In the regions in- 
habited by angelic natures, unmingled felicity forever blooms ; 
joy flows there with a perpetual and abundant stream, nor 
needs any mound to check its course." — Carter. 

Rule II. — Simple Members. 

When several simple members, each of which is complete 
in sense, are constructed into a period ; if they require a pause 
greater than that of the comma, they are usually separated by 
the semicolon : as, " Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls 
lie at the bottom." — Murray. 

" A longer care man's helpless kind demands ; 
That longer care contracts more lasting bands." — Pope. 

Rule III. — Apposition, &c. 

Words in apposition, in disjunct pairs, or in any other con- 
struction, if they require a pause greater than that of the com- 
ma, and less than that of the colon, may be separated by the 
semicolon: as, "There are five moods; the infinitive, the in- 
dicative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the imperative." 

SECTION III. — OF THE COLON. 

The Colon is used to separate those parts of a compound 
sentence, w^hich are neither so closely connected as those 
which are distinguished by the semicolon, nor so Little 
dependent as those which require the period. 

Rule I. — Additional Remarks. 

When the preceding clause is complete in itself, but is fol- 
lowed by some additional remark or illustration, especially if 



CHAP. I.] PROSODY— PUNCTUATION.— PERIOD. 255 

no conjunction is used, the colon is generally and properly in- 
serted: as, "Avoid evil doers: in such society an honest man 
may become ashamed of himself." — "See that moth fluttering 
incessantly round the candle : man of pleasure, behold thy 
image." — Karnes. 

Rule II. — -Greater Pauses. 

When the semicolon has been introduced, and a still greater 
pause is required within the period, the colon should be em- 
ployed : as, " Princes have courtiers, and merchants have part- 
ners ; the voluptuous have companions, and the wicked have 
accomplices : none but the virtuous can have friends." 

Rule III. — Independent Quotations. 

A quotation introduced without dependence on a verb or a 
conjunction, is generally preceded by the colon ; as, " In his 
last moments he uttered these words : ''I fall a sacrifice to sloth 
and luxury? " 

SECTION IV. — OF THE PERIOD. 

The Period, or Full Stop, is used to mark an entire 
and independent sentence, whether simple or compound. 

Rule I. — Distinct Sentences. 

When a sentence is complete in respect to sense, and inde- 
pendent in respect to construction, it should be marked with 
the period : as, " Every deviation from truth is criminal. Ab- 
hor a falsehood. Let your words be ingenuous. Sincerity 
possesses the most powerful charm." 

Rule II. — Allied Sentences. 

The period is often employed between two sentences which 
have a general connexion, expressed by a personal pronoun, a 
conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb; as, "The selfish man 
languishes in his narrow circle of pleasures. They are con- 
fined to what affects his own interests. He is obliged to repeat 
the same gratifications, till they become insipid. But the man 
of virtuous sensibility moves in a wider sphere of felicity."— 
Blair. 

Rule III. — Abbreviations. 

The period is generally used after abbreviations, and very 
often to the exclusion of other points ; but, as in this case it is 
not a constant sign of pause, other points may properly follow 
it, if the words written in full would demand them : as, A. D. 
for Anno Domini ; — Pro tem. for pro tempore ; — Ult. for ul- 



256 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IT. 

timo ; — i. e. for id est, that is ; — Add., Spect., No. 285; i. e., 
Addison, in the Spectator, Number 2Sbtk. 
" Consult the statute ; ' quart.' I think, it is, 
* Edwardi sext.,' or ' prim, et quint. Eliz.' " — Pope, p. 



SECTION V. — OF THE DASH. 

The Dash is mostly used to denote an unexpected or 
emphatic pause of variable length ; but sometimes it is 
a sign of faltering ; sometimes, of omission : if set after 
an other sign of pause, it usually lengthens the interval. 

Kule I. — Abrupt Pauses. 
A sudden interruption or transition should be marked with 
the dash ; as, " 'I must inquire into the affair, and. if — 'And 
ifV interrupted the farmer." 

" Here lies the great — false marble, where ? 
Nothing but sordid dust lies here." — Young. 

Rule II. — Emphatic Pauses. 
To mark a considerable pause, greater than the structure of 
the sentence or the points inserted, would seem to require, the 
dash may be employed ; as, 

1. " And now they part — to meet no more." 

2. " Revere thyself; — and yet thyself despise." 

3. ' " Behold the picture ! — Is it like 1 — Like whom ?" 

Rule III. — Faulty Dashes. 
Dashes needlessly inserted, or substituted for other stops 
more definite, are in general to be treated as errors in punc- 
tuation. Example : u — You shall go home directly, Le Fevre, 
said my uncle Toby, to my house, — and we '11 send for a doc- 
tor to see what 's the matter, — and we '11 have an apothecary, 
— and the corporal shall be your nurse ; — and I '11 be your 
servant, Le Fevre." — Sterne : Enfield's Speaker, p. 306. Better 
thus : " ' You shall go home directly, Le Fevre,' said my uncle 
Toby, ' to my house; and we '11 send for a doctor to see what's 
the matter ; and we '11 have an apothecary ; and the corporal 
shall be your nurse : and I '11 be your servant, Le Fevre.' " 

SECTION VI. — OF THE EROTEME. 

The Eroteme, or Note of Interrogation, is used to 
designate a question. 

Rule I.— Questions Direct. 
Questions expressed directly as such, if finished, should al- 
ways be followed by the note of interrogation j as, 



CHAP. I.] PROSODY.— PUNCTUATION.— ECPHONEME. 257 

" In life, can love be bought with gold 1 
Are friendship's pleasures to be sold V — Johnson, 

Eule II. — Questions United. 
When two or more questions are united in one compound 
sentence, the comma or semicolon is sometimes placed between 
them, and the note of interrogation, after the last only ; as, 
" Truths would you teach, or save a sinking land ? 
All fear, none aid you, and few understand." — Pope. 

Rule III. — Questions Indirect. 
When a question is mentioned, but not put directly as a 
question, it loses both the quality and the sign of interrogation ; 
as, "The Cyprians asked me why I wept" — Murray. 

SECTION VII. — OF THE ECPHONEME. 

The Ecpboneme, or Note of Exclamation, is used to 
denote a pause with some strong or sudden emotion of 
the mind ; and, as a sign of great wonder, it may be 
repeated ! ! ! 

Rule I. — Interjections, &c. 

Interjections, and other expressions of great emotion, are 
generally followed by the note of exclamation ; as, 

" O ! let me listen to the words of life !" — Thomson. 

Rule II. — Invocations. 

After an earnest address or solemn invocation, the note of 

exclamation is usually preferred to any other point ; as, 

"Whereupon, O king Agrippa! I was not disobedient unto 

the heavenly vision." — Acts, xxvi, 19. 

Rule III. — Exclamatory Questions. 
Words uttered with vehemence in the form of a question, but 
without reference to an answer, should be followed by the note 
of exclamation ; as, " How madly have I talked I" — Young. 

SECTION VIII. — OF THE CUKVES. 

The Curves, or Marks of Parenthesis, are used to dis- 
tinguish a clause or hint that is hastily thrown in between 
the parts of a sentence to which it does not properly be- 
long; as, 

" To others do (the law is not severe) 
What to thyself thou wishest to be done." — Beattie. 

Obs. — The incidental clause should be uttered in a lower tone, and faster 
than the principal sentence. It always requires a pause as great as that of a 
comma, or greater. 

22* 



258 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 

Eule I. — The Parenthesis. 

A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence too much to be 
incorporated with it, and only such, should be enclosed as a 
parenthesis; as, 

" Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below." — Pope. 
Rule II. — Included Points. 
The curves do not supersede other stops ; and, as the paren- 
thesis terminates with a pause equal to that which precedes it, 
the same point should be included, except when the sentences 
differ in form : as, 

1. "Man's thirst of happiness declares it is: 

(For nature never gravitates to nought :) 
• That thirst unquench'd, declares it is not here." — Young, 

2. " Night visions may befriend : (as sung above :) 

Our waking dreams are fatal. How I dreamt 
Of things impossible ! (could sleep do more 1) 
Of joys perpetual in perpetual change." — Young. 
SECTION IX. — OF THE OTHER MARKS. 

There are also several other marks, wbich are occa- 
sional! j used for various purposes, as follow : — 

1. [ ' ] The Apostrophe usually denotes either the possessive 
case of a noun, or the elision of one or more letters of a 
word: as, "The girVs regard to her parents' advice;" — 'gan f 
lov'd, e'en, thro'' ; for began, loved, even, through. 

2. [ - ] The Hyphen connects the parts of many compound 
words, especially such as have two accents; as, ever-living. 
It is also frequently inserted where a word is divided into syl- 
lables ; as, con-tem-plate. Placed at the end of a line, it shows 
that one or more syllables of a word are carried forward to 
the next line. 

3. [ " ] The Diceresis, or Dialysis, placed over either of two 
contiguous vowels, shows that they are not a diphthong ; as, 
Dande, aerial. 

4. [ ' ] The Acute Accent marks the syllable which requires 
the principal stress in pronunciation ; as, equal, equality. It 
is sometimes used in opposition to the grave accent, to distin- 
guish a close or short vowel; as, "Fancy:" (Murray:) or to 
denote the rising inflection of the voice ; as, " Is it he P 

5. [ ' ] The Grave Accent is used in opposition to the acute, 
to distinguish an open or long vowel ; as, "Favour :" (Mur- 
ray :) or to denote the falling inflection of the voice \ as, 
"Yes; itisAe." 



CHAP. I.] PROSODY.— PUNCTUATION.— OTHER MARKS. 259 

6. [ A ] The Circumflex generally denotes either the broad 
sound of a, or an unusual and long sound given to some other 
vowel ; as in eclat, all, heir, machine, move, bull. 

7. [ ~ ] The Breve, or Stenotone, is used to denote either a 
close vowel or a syllable of short quantity ; as, raven, to de 
vour. 

8. [ ] The Macron, or Macrotone, is used to denote either 
an open vowel or a syllable of long quantity ; as, raven, a 
bird. 

9. [ ] or [****] The Ellipsis, or Suppression, denotes 

the omission of some letters or words ; as, K—g, for King. 

10. [ A ] The Caret, used only in writing, shows where to in- 
sert words or letters that have been accidentally omitted. 

11. [ — > — , ] The Brace serves to unite a triplet; or to con- 
nect several terms with something to which they are all re- 
lated. 

12. [§] The Section marks the smaller divisions of a book 
or chapter ; and, with the help of numbers, serves to abridge 
references. 

13. [ 1" ] The Paragraph (chiefly used in the Bible) denotes 
the commencement of a new subject. The parts of discourse 
which are called paragraphs, are, in general, sufficiently dis- 
tinguished, by beginning a new line, and carrying the first 
word a little forwards or backwards. 

14. [_" "] The Guillemets, or Quotation Points, distinguish 
words that are taken from an other author or speaker. A quo- 
tation within a quotation is marked with single points; which, 
when both are employed, are placed within the others. 

15. [[]] The Crotchets, or Brackets, generally enclose some 
correction or explanation, or the subject to be explained ; as, 
" He [the speaker] was of a different opinion." 

16. [ftai^] The Index, or Hand, points out something re- 
markable, or what the reader should particularly observe. 

17. [ * ] The Asterisk, or Star, [ f ] the Obelisk, or Dagger, 
[ | ] the Diesis, or Double Dagger, and [ |j ] the Parallels, refer 
to marginal notes. The Section also [§] 7 and the Paragraph 
[ % ], are often used for marks of reference, the. former being 
usually applied to the fourth, and the latter to the sixth note 
on a page ; for, by the usage of printers, these signs are now 
commonly introduced in the following order : 1 * 2 f , 3 J, 
4 §, 5 ||, 6 *|f, 7 **, 8 ff, &c. When many references are to 
be made, the small letters of the alphabet, or the numerical 
figures, in their order, may be conveniently used for the same 
purpose. 

18. [ %* ] The Asterism, or Three Stars, a sign not very 



260 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAK. [PART IV, 

often used, is placed before a long or general note, to mark it 
as a note, without giving it a particular reference. 

19. [9] The Cedilla is a mark borrowed from the French, 
by whom it is placed under the letter c to give it the sound of 
s before a or o; as, in the words, "/apaofe," " Alenpon." In 
Worcester's Dictionary, it is attached to three other letters, 
to denote their soft sounds : viz., " G as J ; S as Z ; x as gz." 

B3P*" [For oral exercises in punctuation, the teacher may select any well-pointed 
book, to which the foregoing rules and explanations may he applied by the pup&. An 
application of the principles of punctuation, either to points rightly inserted, or in 
the correction of errors, is as easy a process as ordinary syntactical parsing or correct- 
ing; and, in proportion to the utility of these principles, as useful. The exercise, in 
relation to correct pointing, consists in reading some passage, in successive parts, ac- 
cording to its points; naming the latter, as they occur; and repeating th« rules or 
doctrines of punctuation, as the reasons for the marks employed.] 



CHAPTEE n.— UTTERANCE. 

Utterance is tbe art of vocal expression. It includes 
the principles of pronunciation and elocution. 

SECTION I. — OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Pronunciation, as distinguished from elocution, is tbe 
utterance of words taken separately. 

Pronunciation requires a knowledge of tbe just powers 
of tbe letters in all their combinations, and of the force 
and seat of the accent. 

I. The Just Powers of the letters, are those sounds which 
are given to them by the best readers. 

II. Accent is the peculiar stress which we lay upon some 
particular syllable of a word, whereby that syllable is distin- 
guished from the rest ; as, gram-mar, gram-md-ri-an. 

Every word of more than one syllable, has one of its sylla- 
bles accented. 

When the word is long, for the sake of harmony or distinct- 
ness, we often give a secondary or less forcible accent to an 
other syllable ; as, to the last of te?n-per-a-ture, and to the 
second of in-dem-ni-f-cd-tion. 

A full and open pronunciation of the long vowel sounds, a 
clear articulation of the consonants, a forcible and well-placed 
accent, and a distinct utterance of the unaccented syllables, 
distinguish the elegant speaker. 

[£3f~ For a full explanation of the principles of pronunciation, the learner is re- 
ferred to Walker's Critical Pronouncing Dictionary; for authorities in reference t« 
Tariahle usage, to the Universal and Critical Dictionary of J. E. Worcester.] 



CHAP, in.] PKOSODY— FIGUKES. 261 

SECTION" II. — OF ELOCUTION. 

Elocution is the utterance of words that are arranged 
into sentences, and form discourse. 

Elocution requires a knowledge, and right application, 
of emphasis, pauses, inflections, and tones. 

I. Emphasis is the peculiar stress of voice which we lay 
upon some particular word or words in a sentence, which are 
thereby distinguished from the rest, as being more especially 
significant. 

II. Pauses are cessations in utterance, which serve equally 
to relieve the speaker, and to render language intelligible and 
pleasing. The duration of the pauses should be proportionate 
to the degree of connexion between the parts of the discourse. 

III. Inflections are those peculiar variations of the human 

voice, by which a continuous sound is made to pass from one 

note, key, or pitch, into an other. The passage of the voice 

from a lower to a higher or shriller note, is called the rising 

or upward inflection. The passage of the voice from a higher 

to a lower or graver note, is called the falling or downward 

inflection. These two opposite inflections may be heard in 

the following examples : 1. The rising, " Do you mean to go?" 

2. The falling, "When will you go?" 

Obs. — Questions that may be answered by yes or no, require the rising in- 
flection ; those that demand any other answer, must be uttered with the 
falling inflection. 

IV. Tones are those modulations of the voice, which depend 
upon the feelings of the speaker. They are what Sheridan 
denominates " the language of emotions." And it is of the ut- 
most importance, that they be natural, unaffected, and rightly 
adapted to the subject and to the occasion : for, upon them, in 
a great measure, depends all that is pleasing 'or interesting in 
elocution. 



CHAPTER III.— FIGURES. 

A Figure, in grammar, is an intentional deviation 
from the ordinary spelling, formation, construction, or 
application, of words. There are, accordingly, figures 
of Orthography, figures of Etymology, figures of Syntax, 
and figures of Rhetoric. When figures are judiciously 
employed, they both strengthen and adorn expression. 
They occur more frequently in poetry than in prose ; 
and several of them are merely poetic licenses. 



262 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IT. 

SECTION 1. — FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 

A Figure of Orthography is an intentional deviation 
from the ordinary or true spelling of a word. 

The principal figures of Orthography are two; namely, 
Mi-me'-sis and Ar'-cha-ism. * 

I. Mimesis is a ludicrous imitation of some mistake or mis- 
pronunciation of a word, in which the error is mimicked by a 
false spelling, or the taking of one word for an other; as, 
" Maister, says he, have you any wery good weal in your 
vdlletV — Columbian Orator, p. 292. " Ay, he was porn at 
Monmouth, captain Gower." — Shak. " I will description the 
matter to you, if you be capacity of it." — Id. 

" Perdigious ! I can hardly stand."- — Lloyd. 

II. An Archaism is a word or phrase expressed according 
to ancient usage, and not according to our modern orthog- 
raphy ; as, "Newe grene chese of smdlle clammynes comfortethe 
a hotte stomake." — T. Paynel : Tookes Diversions, ii, 132. 

" With him was rev'rend Contemplation pight, 
Bow-bent with eld, his beard of snowy hue." — Beattie. 

SECTION II.— FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

A Figure of Etymology is an intentional deviation 
from the ordinary formation of a word. 

The principal figures of Etymology are eight; namely, 
A-phwr'-e-sis, Pros' -thesis, Syn'-co-pe, A-poc'-o-pe, Par-a-go'-ge, 
Di-air'-e-sis, Syn-cer'-e-sis, and Tme-sis. 

I. Aphceresis is the elision of some of the initial letters of a 
word : as, 'gainst, 'gan, 'neath, — for against, began, beneath. 

II. Prosthesis is the prefixing of an expletive syllable to a 
word: as, adown, appaid, fostrown, evanished, yclad, — for 
down, paid, strown, vanished, clad. 

III. Syncope is the elision of some of the middle letters of 
a word : as, medicine, for medicine ; e'en, for even ; o'er, for • 
over; conq'ring, for conquering ; se'nnight, for sevennight. 

IV. Apocope, is the elision of some of the final letters of a 
word : as, tho\ for though ; th\ for the ; t'other, for the other. 

V. Paragoge is the annexing of an expletive syllable to a 
word : as, withouten, for without ; deary, for dear ; Johnny, for 
John. 

VI. Diceresis is the separating of two vowels that might 
form a diphthong : as, cooperate, not cooperate ; aeronaut, not 
aeronaut ; orthoepy, not orthwpy. 

VII. Synceresis is the sinking of two syllables into one : as, 
seest, for se'est ; tacked, for tack-ed ; drowned, for drown-ed. 



CHAP. III.] PKOSODY.— FIGUKES.— SECTION III. 263 

Obs. — When a vowel is entirely suppressed in pronounciation, (whether 
retained in writing or not,) the consonants connected with it, fall into an 
other syllable ; thus, tried, triest, loved or lov'd, lovest or lov'st, are monosyl- 
lables ; except in solemn discourse, in which the e is generally retained and 
made vocal. 

VIII. Tmesis is the inserting of a word between the parts 

of a compound; as, "On which side soever ;" — "To us ward;" 

—"To God ward.' 1 

SECTION III. — FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

A Figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation from 
the ordinary construction of words. 

The principal figures of Syntax are five ; namely, El-lip' -sis, 
Ple'-o-nasm, Syl-lep'-sis, En-al'-la-ge, and Hyper'-ba-ton. 

I. Ellipsis* is the omission of some word or words which 
are necessary to complete the construction, but not necessary 
to convey the meaning. Such words are said to be under- 
stood ; because they are received as belonging to the sentence, 
though they are not uttered. 

Almost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical. 
There may be an omission of any of the parts of speech, or 
even of a whole clause ; but the omission of articles or inter- 
jections can scarcely constitute a proper ellipsis. Examples : 

1. Of the Article; as, "A man and [a] woman." — "The 
day, [the] month, and [the] year." 

2. Of the Noun ; as, " The common [law] and the statute 
law." — " The twelve [apostles]" — " One p>oo&] of my books." 
— "A dozen [bottles] of wine." 

3. Of the Adjective ; as, "There are subjects proper for the 
one, and not [proper] for the other." — Karnes. 

4. Of the Pronoun ; as, " I love [him] and [/] fear him." — 
" The estates [ivhicK] we own." 

* There never can be an ellipsis of any thing which is either unnecessary to the con- 
struction or necessary to the sense , for to say what we mean and nothing more, never 
can constitute a deviation from the ordinary grammatical construction of words. A3 
a figure of Syntax, therefore, the ellipsis can be only of such words as are so evidently 
suggested to the reader, that the writer is as fully answerable for them as if he had 
written them. To suppose an ellipsis where there is none, or to overlook one where 
it really occurs, is to pervert or mutilate the text, in order to accommodate it to the 
parsers ignorance of the principles of syntax. There never can be either a general 
uniformity or a self-consistency in our methods of parsing, or in our notions of gram- 
mar, till the true nature of an ellipsis is clearly ascertained; so that the writer shall 
distinguish it from a blundering omission that impairs the sense, and the reader 
be barred from an arbitrary insertion of what would be cumbrous and useless. By 
adopting loose and extravagant ideas of the nature of this figure, some pretenders to 
learning and philosophy have been led into the most whimsical and opposite notions 
concerning the grammatical construction of language. Thus, with equal absurdity, 
Cardell and Sherman, in their Philosophic Grammars, attempt to confute the doc- 
trines of their predecessors, by supposing ellipses at pleasure. And while the former 
teaches, that prepositions do not govern the objective case, but that every verb is 
transitive, and governs at least two objects, expressed or wnder 'stood, its own and that 
of a preposition; the latter, with just as good an argument, contends, that no verb is 
transitive, but that every objective case is governed by a preposition expressed or ?mr 
derstood. A world of nonsense for lack of a definition I 



264 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IY. 

5. Of the Verb; as, "Who did this? I" [did it].— "To 
whom thus Eve, yet sinless" [spoke]. 

6. Of the Participle ; as, " That [being] o'er, they part." 

T. Of the Adverb; as, " He spoke [wisely] and acted wisely." 
—"Exceedingly great and [exceedingly] powerful. " 

8. Of the Conjunction ; as, " The fruit of the Spirit is love, 
and] joy, [and] peace, [and] long-suffering, [and] gentleness, 

jz?id goodness, [awo?] faith, [awe?] meekness, [emafj temper- 
ance." — Gal, v, 22. The repetition of the conjunction is called 
Polysyndeton ; and the omission of it, Asyndeton. 

9. Of the Preposition; as, " [On] this day." — " [In] next 
month." — " He departed [/rom] this life." — " He gave [to] me 
a book." — "To walk [through] a mile." 

10. Of the Interjection; as, " Oh ! the frailty, [OA/] the 
wickedness of men !" 

11. Of a Phrase or Clause ; as, "The active commonly do 
more than they are bound to do ; the indolent [commonly do] 
less" [than they are bound to do]. 

II. Pleonasm is the introduction of superfluous words. This 
figure is allowable only, when, in animated discourse, it ab- 
ruptly introduces an emphatic word, or repeats an idea to im- 
press it more strongly ; as, u He that hath ears to hear, let him 
hear !" — " All ye inhabitants of the world, and dwellers on the 
earth /" — " There shall not be left one stone upon an other, that 
shall not be thrown downy — " I know thee who thou art? — 
Bible. A Pleonasm is sometimes impressive and elegant; but 
an unemphatic repetition of the same idea, is one of the worst 
faults of bad writing. 

III. Syllepsis is agreement formed according to the figura- 
tive sense of a word, or the mental conception of the thing 
spoken of, and not according to the literal or common use of 
the term ; it is therefore, in general, connected with some 
figure of rhetoric : as, " The Word was made flesh and dwelt 
among us, and we beheld his glory." — John, i, 14. "Then 
Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and preached Christ 
unto them? — Acts, viii, 5. " While Evening draws her crim- 
son curtains round." — Thomson. 

IV. JEnallage is the use of one part of speech, or of one 
modification for an other. This figure borders closely upon 
solecism ;* and, for the stability of the language, it should be 

* Deviations of this kind are, in general, to be considered solecisms ; otherwise the 
. rules of grammar would be of no use or authority. Despuuter, an ancient Latin gram- 
marian, "gave an improper latitude to this figure, under the name of Antiptosis ; and 
Behourt and others extended it still further. But Sunctius says, " Antiptosi gram- 
■yiaticorum nihil imperitius, quod figmentwm si esset verum, frustra qucereretur, 
quern cuswm- verba regerenV And the Mess^durs De Port Royal reject the figure 



CHAF. III.] PROSODY.— FIGURES— SECTION IT. 265 

sparingly indulged. There are, however, several forms of it 
which can appeal to good authority : as, 

-1. " You know that you are Brutus, that speak this." — Shak. 

2. " They fall successive [ly] ? and successive [ly ] rise." — Pope. 

3. " Than whom [who] none higher sat." — Milton. 

4. "Sure some disaster has befelF 1 [befallen]. — Gay. 

5. " So furious was that onset's shock, 

Destruction's gates at once unlock" — Hogg. 

V. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words ; as, " He wan- 
ders earth around" — Cowper. " Rings the world with the vain 
stir." — Id. " Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship, him de- 
clare I unto you." — Acts. This figure is much employed in 
poetry. A judicious use of it confers harmony, variety, 
strength, and vivacity upon composition. But care should be 
taken lest it produce ambiguity or obscurity. 

SECTION IV. — FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

A Figure of Ehetoric is an intentional deviation 
from the ordinary application of words. Some figures 
of this kind are commonly called Tropes, i. e., turns. 

Numerous departures from perfect simplicity of diction, 
occur in almost every kind of composition. They are mostly 
founded on some sir. jlitude or relation of things, which, by 
the power of imagination, is rendered conducive to ornament 
or illustration. 

The principal figures of Rhetoric are fourteen; namely 
Sim'-i-le\ Metf-a-phor, Al'-le-gor-y, Me-ton'-y-my, Syn-ec'-do-che, 
Hy-per'-bo-le, Vis-ion, A-pos' -tro-phe, Person' -i-fi-ca'-tion, Er-o- 
te'sis, Ec-pho-ne'-sis, An-tith' -e-sis, Cli'-max, and P-ro-ny. 

I. A Simile is a simple and express comparison ; and is 
generally introduced by like, as, or so : as, 

" At first, like thunder's distant tone, 
The rattling din came rolling on." — Hogg. 
" Man, like the generous vine, supported lives ; 
The strength he gains, is from th' embrace he gives." — Pope. 

II. A Metaphor is a figure that expresses the resemblance 
©f two objects by applying either the name, or some attribute 
adjunct, or action of the one, directly to the other ; as, 

1. " His eye was morning' 's brightest ray" — Hogg. 

2. " An angler in the tides of fame." — Id. 

altogether. There are, however, some changes of this kind, which the grammarian te 
not competent to condemn, though they do not accord with the ordinary principles of 
construction. 

12 



266 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAE. [PAETIY. 

3. " Beside him sleeps the warrior's bow." — Langhorne. 

4. " Wild fancies in his moody brain, 

Gambol d unbridled and unbound? — Hogg. 

5. " Speechless, and fix'd in all the death of wo." — Thorn, 

III. An Allegory is a continued narration of fictitious events, 

designed to represent and illustrate important realities. Thus 

the Psalmist represents the Jewish nation under the symbol of 

a vine : " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast 

cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room 

before it, and didst cause it to take deep root ; and it filled the 

land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the 

boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars." — Ps., lxxx, 8. 

Obs. — The Allegory, agreeably to tiie foregoing definition of it, includes 
most of those similitudes which in the Scriptures are called parables ; it in- 
cludes also the better sort of 'fables. The term allegory is sometimes applied 
to a true history in which something else is intended, than is contained in the 
words literally taken. [See Gal., iv, 24.] In the Scriptures, the term fable 
denotes an idle and groundless story. [Seo yffim., iv, 1 ; and 2 Pet, i, 16.] 

IV. A Metonymy is a change oi*names. It is founded on 
some such relation as that of cause and effect, of subject and 
adjunct, of place and inhabitant, of container and thing contain^ 
ed, or of sign and thing signified : as, " God is our salvation ;" 
i. e., Saviour. — " He was the sigh of her secret soul ;" i. e., the 
youth she loved. — "They smote the city ;" i. e., citizens. — 
" My son, give me thy heart ;" i. e., affection. — " The sceptrt 
shall not depart from Judah ;" i. e., kingly power. 

V. Synedoche is the naming of the whole for a part, or of 
a part for the whole; as, "This roof [i. e., house] protects 
you." — " Now the year [i. e., summer] is beautiful." 

VI. Hyperbole is extravagant exaggeration, in which the 
imagination is indulged beyond the sobriety of truth ; as, 

" The sky shrunk upward with unusual dread, 
And trembling Tiber ditfd beneath his bed? — Dryden. 

VII. Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the speaker 
represents the objects of his imagination, as actually before hia 
eyes, and present to his senses ; as, 

" I see the dagger-crest of Mar ! 
I see the Moray's silver star 
Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon war, 
That up the lake comes winding far !" — Scott. 

VIII. Apostrophe is a turning from the regular course of the 
subject, into an animated address ; as, " Death is swallowed 
up in victory. O Death ! where is thy sting 1 O Grave ! 
where is thy victory ?" — 1 Cor., xv, 54, 55. 

IX. Personification is a figure by which, in imagination, we 



CHAP. IV.] PROSODY— VERSIFICATION. 267 

ascribe intelligence and personality to unintelligent beings or 
abstract qualities ; as, 

1. "The Worm, aware of his intent, 

Harangued him thus, right eloquent." — Coivper. 

2. " Lo, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears !" — Rog. 

3. " Hark ! Truth proclaims, thy triumphs cease." — Id. 

X. Erotesis is a figure in which the speaker adopts the form 
of interrogation, not to express a doubt, but, in general, confi- 
dently to assert the reverse of what is asked ; as, " Hast thou 
an arm like God? or canst thou thunder with a voice like 
him V — Job, xl, 9. " He that planted the ear, shall he not 
hear? he that formed the eye, shall he not see V — Ps., xciv, 9. 

XI. Ecphonesis is a pathetic exclamation, denoting some 
violent emotion of the mind ; as, " O liberty ! — O sound once 
delightful to every Roman ear ! — O sacred privilege of Roman 
citizenship! — once sacred — now trampled upon!" — Cicero. 
"O that I had wings like a dove! for then would I fly away 
and be at rest !" — Ps., lv, 6. 

XII. Antithesis is a placing of things in opposition, to heighten 
their effect by contrast ; as, 

" Contrasted faults through all his manners reign ; 
Though poor* luxurious ; though submissive, vain • 
Though grave, yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrue; 
And e'en in penance, planning sins anew." — Goldsmith. 

XIII. Climax is a figure in which the sense is made to ad- 
vance by successive steps, to rise gradually to what is more 
and more important and interesting, or to descend to what is 
more and more minute and particular ; as, " And beside this, 
giving all diligence, add to your faith, virtue ; and to virtue, 
knowledge ; and to knowledge, temperance ; and to temper- 
ance, patience ; and to patience, godliness ; and to godliness, 
brotherly kindness; and to brotherly kindness, charity." — 2 
Peter, i, 5. 

XIV. Irony is a figure in which the speaker sneeringly uU 
ters the direct reverse of what he intends shall be understood ; 
as, " We have, to be sure, great reason to believe the modest 
man would not ask him for a debt, when he pursues his life." 
— Cicero. 



CHAPTER IV.— VERSIFICATION/ 

Versification is the art of arranging words into lines 
of correspondent length, so as to produce harmony by 
the regular alternation of syllables differing in quantity. 



268 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAR. [PART IV. 

SECTION I. — OF QUANTITY. 

The Quantity of a syllable, is the relative portion of 
time occupied in uttering it. In poetry, every syllable 
is considered to be either long or short. A long syllable 
is reckoned to be equal to two short ones. 

Obs. 1, — The quantity of a syllable does not depend on the sound of the 
vowel or diphthong, but principally on the degree of accentual force with 
which the syllable is uttered, whereby a greater or less portion of time is 
employed. The open vowel sounds are those which are the most easily pro- 
tracted, yet they often occur in the shortest and feeblest syllables. 

Obs. 2. — Most monosyllables are variable, and may be made either long or 
short, as suits the rhythm. In words of greater length, the accented syllable 
is always long ; and a syllable immediately before or after that which is ac- 
cented, is always short. 

SECTION II. — OF RHYME. 

Rhyme is a similarity of sound, between the last syl- 
lables of different lines or half lines. Blank verse is 
verse without rhyme. 

Obs. — The principal rhyming syllables are almost always long. Doubla 
rhyme adds one snort syllable ; triple rhyme, two. Such syllables are redun- 
dant in iambic and anapestic verses. 

SECTION III. — OF POETIC FEET. 

A line of poetry consists of successive combinations of 
syllables, called feet. A poetic foot, in English, consists 
either of two or of three syllables. 

The principal English feet are the Iambus, the Trochee, the 
Anapest, and the Dactyl. 

1. The Iambus, or Iamb, is a poetic foot consisting of a short 
syllable and a long one; as, betray, confess, 

2. The Trochee, or Choree, is a poetic foot consisting of a 
long syllable and a short one ; as, hateful, pettish. 

3. The Anapest is a poetic foot consisting of two short syl- 
lables and one long one ; as, contravene, acquiesce. 

4. The Dactyl is a poetic foot consisting of one long syllable 
and two short ones ; as, labourer, possible. 

We have, accordingly, four principal kinds of verse, or poetio 
measure ; Iambic, Trochaic, Anapestic, and Dactylic. 

Obs. 1. — The more pure these several kinds are preserved, the more exact 
mid complete is the chime of the verse. But poets generally indulge some 
variety ; not so much, however, as to confound the drift of the rhythmical 
pulsations. 

Obs. 2.— Among the occasional diversifications of metre, are sometimes 
found or supposed sundry other feet, which are called secondary: as, the 
Spondee, a foot of two long syllables ; the Pyrrhic, of two short : the Moloss, 
of three long syllables; the Tribrach, of three short: the Amphibrach, a long 
ey liable with a short one on each side ; the Amphimac, Amphimacer, or Gretic, 
& short syllable with a long one on each side : the Bacchy, a short syllable 



CHAP. IV.] PEOSODY.— VERSIFICATION.— ORDER I. 269 

and two long ones ; the Antibacchy, or JZypobacchy, two long syllables and a 
short one. Yet few, if any, of tliese feet, are really necessary to a sufficient 
explanation of English verse; and the adopting of so many is liable to th3 
great objection, that we thereby produce different modes of measuring th.3 
same lines. 

Obs. 3.— Sometimes also verses are variegated by what is called the pedal 
ecesura, or cesure; (i. e., cutting ;) which is a single long syllable counted by 
itself as a foot. For, despite the absurd suggestions of many grammarians 
and prosodists to the contrary, all metricar deficiencies and redundancies' 
embrace nothing but short syllables, and the number of long ones in a lin< 
is almost always the number oifeet which compose it : as, 
"Keeping | time, | time, | time, 
In a | sort of | Runic | rhyme."— K A. Poe, 

SECTION IV. — OF SCANNING. 

Scanning, or Scansion, is the dividing of verses into 
the feet which, compose them, according to the several 
orders of poetic numbers, or the different kinds of metre. 

Obs. — When a syllable is wanting, the verse is said to be catalectic ; when 
the measure is exact, the line is acatalectic ; when there is a redundant syl- 
lable, it forms hypermeter, or a line hyjjercatalectic. 

Order I. — Iambic Verse. 

In Iambic verse, the stress is laid on the even syllables, and 
the odd ones are short. It consists of the following measures : — ■ 

Measure 1st. — Iambic of Eight Feet, or Octometer. 
" O all | ye peoj-ple, clap | your hands, | and with | trium[- 
phant voic|-Ss sing ; 
No force | the might |-y pow'r | withstands | of God | the 

u|-nivers|-al King." 

Obs. — Each couplet of this verse is now commonly reduced to, or ex- 
changed for, a simple stanza of four tetrameter hues ; thus, — 
" The hour | is come ! — the cher|-ish'd hour, 
When from | the busj-y world | set free, 
I seek | at length | my lone|-ly bower, 
And muse | in sij-lent thought | on thee." — Hook. 

Measure 2d. — Iambic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter. 
"The Lord | descend|-ed from | above, | and bow'd | the 
heav|-ens high." 

Obs. — Modern poets have divided this kind of verse, into alternate liaea 
of four and of three feet ; thus, — 

"0 blind | t5 each | indulj-gent aim 
Of pow'r | supreme|-ly wise, 
Who fan|-cy hapj-piness I in aught 
The hand | of heav'n | denies!" 

Measure 3d. — Iambic of Six Feet, or Hexameter. 

"Thy" realm | forev|-er lasts, | thy" own | Messi|-ah reigns." 

Obs. — This is the Alexandrine ; it is seldom used except to' complete a 
stanza in an ode, or occasionally to close a period in heroic rhyme. Freack 
heroics are similar to this. 

23* 



270 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 

Measure 4th. — Iambic of Five Feet, or Pentameter. 



" For praise | too dear 
Enfeel-bles all I inter 



■]f lov'd | or warm|-iy sought, 

-nal strength | of thought." 

" With sol|-emn ad|-ora|-tion down | they cast 

Their crowns | inwove | with am|-arant | and gold." 

Obs. 1. — This is the regular English heroic. It is, perhaps, the only meas- 
ure suitable for blank verse. 

Obs. 2. — The Elegiac Stanza consists of four heroics rhyming alternately ; 

as, 

" Enough | has Heav'n | indulg'd J of joy | below, 
To tempt | our tar j-riance in | this lov'd | retreat ; 

Enough I has Heav'n | ordain'd | of use|-ful wo, 
To make j us langj-uish for | a hap [-pier seat." 

Measure 5th. — Iambic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. 

"The joys | above | are un|-derstood 

And rel|-ish'd on|-ly by | the good." 

Measure 6th. — Iambic of ^hree Feet, or Trimeter. 
"Blue light |-nings singe | the waves, 
And thun|-der rends | the rock." 

Measure 7th. — Iambic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. 
"Their love | and awe 
Supply | the law." 

Measure 8th.' — Iambic of One Foot, or Monometer. 

" How bright, 

The light!" 

Obs. 1. — Lines of fewer than seven syllables are seldom found, except in 
connexion with longer verses. 

Obs. 2. — In iambic verse, the first foot is often varied, by introducing a 
trochee; as, 

" Planets | and suns I run lawj-less through | the sky." 
Obs. 3. — By a synaeresis of the two short syllables, or perhaps by mere 
substitution, an anapest may sometimes be employed for an iambus ; or a 
dactyl, for a trochee : as, 

"Cer man\-y a /W>|-zen, man|-^ aji\-ery AlpP 

Order II. — Trochaic Verse. 
In Trochaic verse, the stress is laid on the odd syllables, and 
the even ones are short. Single-rhymed trochaic omits the 
final short syllable, that it may end with a long one. This 
kind of verse is the same as iambic would be without the ini- 
tial short syllable. Iambics and trochaics often occur in the 
same poem. 

Measure 1st. — Trochaic of Eight Feet, or Octometer. 
"Once up|-on a | midnight | dreary, | while I | pondered, | 
weak and | weary, 
Over j many d | quaint and | curious | volume | of for] 
-gotten | lore, 



CHAP. IV.] PROSODY.— VERSIFICATION— ORDER II. 271 

While I | nodded, | nearly | napping, | sudden|-ly there | 
came a | tapping, 
As of | some one | gently | rapping, | rapping | at my | 
chamber | door." 

Measure 2d. — Trochaic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter. 
" Hasten, | Lord, to | rescue | me, and | set me | safe from | 
trouble ; 
Shame thou | those who | seek my | soul, re|-ward their | 
mischief | double." 

Single Rhyme. 
a Night and | morning | were at | meeting | over | Water| 
-loo ; 
Cocks had | sung their | earliest | greeting ; | faint and | low 
they | crew." 

Measure 3d. — Trochaic of Six Feet, or Hexameter. 
*On a | mountain j stretch'd be|-neath a, | hoary | willow, 
Lay a | shepherd | swain, and | view'dthe | rolling | billow." 

Single Rhyme. 
" Lonely | in the | forest, | subtle | from his | birth, 
Lived a | necro|-mancer, | wondrous | son of | earth." 

Measure 4th. — Trochaic of Five Feet, or Pentameter. 
" Virtue's | brlght'ning | ray shall | beam for j ever." 
Single Rhyme. 
" Idle | after | dinner, | In his | chair, 
Sat a | farmer, | ruddy, | fat, and | fair." 

Measure 5th. — Trochaic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. 
" Round a | hol^ | calm dif | -fusing, 
Love of | peace and | lonely | musing." 

Single Rhyme. 
" Restless | mSrtals | toil for | naught, 
Bliss in | vain from | earth is | sought." 

Measure 6th. — Trochaic of Three Feet, or Trimeter. 
" When 6ur | hearts are | mourning." 
Single Rhyme. 
" In the | days of | old, 
Stories | plainly | told." 

Measure 7th. — Trochaic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. 
" Fancy | viewing, 
Joys en|-suing." 



272 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 

Single Rhyme. 



" Tumult 
Sink to 



cease, 
peace." 



Measure 8th. — Trochaic of One Foot, or Monometer. 
" Changing, 
Ranging." 

Order III. — Anapestic Verse. 

In Anapestic verse the stress is laid on every third syllables, 
The first foot of an anapestic line, may be an iambus. 

Measure 1st. — Anapestic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. 

" At the close | of the day, | when the ham|-let is still, 
And wor|-tals the sweets j of forget | -fulness prove." 

Hypermeter with Double Rhyme. 

w In a word, [ so complete|-ly forestall'd | were the wish[-es, 
Even har|-mony struck | from the noise | of the dish|-es." 

Hypermeter with Triple Rhyme. 

" Lean Tom, | when I saw ] him, last week, | on his horse j 
awry, 
Threaten'd loud|-ly to turn | me to stone | with his sor\-cery" 

Measure 2d. — Anapestic of Three Feet, or Trimeter, 

" I am mon -arch of all | I survey ; 
My right there is none | to dispute." 

Measure 3d. — Anapestic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. 

" When I look | on m^ boys, 
They renew | all my joys." 

Measure 4th. — Anapestic of One Foot, or Monometer. 

" On the land 
Let me stand." 

Order IV. — Dactylic Verse. 

In pure Dactylic verse, the stress is laid on the first syllable 
of each successive three ; that is, on the first, the fourth, the 
seventh, the tenth syllable, &c. Full dactylic generally forms 
triple rhyme. When one of the final short syllables is omitted, 
the rhyme is double; when both, single. Dactylic with single 
rhyme is the same as anapestic would be without its initial 
short syllables. Dactylic measure is rather uncommon \ and, 
when employed, is seldom perfectly regular. 






CHAP. IV.] PROSODY— VERSIFICATION.— ORDER IV. 273 

Measure 1st. — Dactylic of Eight Feet, or Octometer. 
" Nimrod the | hunter was | mighty in | hunting, and | famed 
as the | ruler of | cities of | yore; 
Babel, and | Erech, and | Accad, and | Calneh, from | Shi- 
nar's fair | region his | name afar j bore." 

Measure 2d. — Dactylic of Seven Feet, or Heptameter. 
" Out of the | kingdom of | Christ shall be | gathered, by [ 
angels o'er | Satan victorious, 
All that ofj-fendeth, that | lieth, that | failethto | honour his 
| name ever | glorious." 

Measure 3d. — Dactylic of Six Feet, or Hexameter. 
" Time, thou art | ever in | motion, on | wheels of the | days, 
years, and | ages ; 
Restless as | waves of the ] ocean, when | Eurus or | Boreas 
J rages." 

Example without Rhyme. 
"This is the | forest pri|-meval ; but j where are the | hearts 
that be|-neath it 
Leap'd like the | roe, when he | hears in the | woodland the 
| voice of the | huntsman ?" 

Measure 4th. — Dactylic of Five Feet, or Pentameter. 
" Now thou dost | welcome me, | welcome me, | from the 
dark | sea, 
Land of the | beautiful, | beautiful, ] land of the j free." 

Measure 5th. — Dactylic of Four Feet, or Tetrameter. 

"Boys will anticipate, | lavish, and | dissipate* 

All that your | busy pate | hoarded with | care ; 
And, in their | foolishness, | passion, and f mulishness, 
Charge you with | churlishness, | spurning your | pray'r." 

Measure 6th. — Dactylic of Three Feet, or Trimeter. 
" Ever sing | merrily, | merrily." 

Measure 7th. — Dactylic of Two Feet, or Dimeter. 
" Free from sa|tlety, 
Care, and anx|iety, 
Charms in va|riety, 
Fall to his | share." 

Measure 8th. — Dactylic of One Foot, or Monometer. 
" Fearfiiliy, 
Tearfully." 
12* 



274 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 

CHAPTER V.~ ORAL EXERCISES. 
EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

PRAXIS VIII.— PROSODICAL. 
In the Eighth Praxis, are exemplified the several Figures of 
Orthography, of Etymology, of Syntax, and of Rhetoric, which' 
the parser may name and define ; and by it the pupil map 
also be exercised in relation to the principles of Punctuation, 
Utterance, and Versification. 

LESSON I. — FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 
MIMESIS AND ARCHAISM. 

"Eery goot : I will make a prief of it in my note-book ; and 
we will afterwards 'ork upon the cause with as great discreetly 
as we can." — Shah. 

" Vat is you sing 1 I do not like dese toys. Pray you, go 
and vetch me in my closet un boilier verd ; a box, a green-a 
box. Do intend vat I speak ? a green-a box." — Id. 

" I ax'd you what you had to sell. I am fitting out a wessel 
for Wenice, loading her with warious keinds of prowisions, and 
wittualling her for a long woyage ; and I want several undred 
weight of weal, wenison, &c, with plenty of inyons and winegar^ 
for the preserwation of ealth." — Columbian Orator, p. 292. 

" None [else are] so desperately evill, as they that may bee 
good and will not : or have beene good and are not." — Rev. 
John Rogers, 1620. " A Carpenter finds his work as hee left 
it, but a Minister shall find his sett back. You need preach 
continually." — Id. 
" Here whilom ligg'd th' Esopus of his age, 

But call'd by Fame, in soul y pricked deep." — Thomson. 
" It was a fountain of Nepenthe rare, 

Whence, as Dan Homer sings, huge pleasaunce grew." — Id. 

LESSON II. — FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

APKJJRESIS, PROSTHESIS, SYNCOPE, APOCOPE, PARAGOGE, DLERESIS, 
SYN^ERESIS, AND TMESIS. 

Bend 'gainst the steepy hill thy breast, 

Burst down like torrent from its crest." — Scott. 

'Tis mine to teach th' inactive hand to reap 

Kind nature's bounties, o'er the globe diffused. — Dyer, 

Alas ! alas ! how impotently true 

Th' aenaZ pencil forms the scene anew. — Cawthorne* 



CHAP. V.] PKOSODY. — PARSING. — PRAXIS IX. 275 

Here a deformed monster joy'd to won, 
Which on fell rancour ever was ybent. — Lloyd. 

Withouten trump was proclamation made. — Thomson, 

The gentle knight, who saw their rueful case, 

Let fall adown his silver beard some tears. 

1 Certes,' quoth he, ' it is not e'en in grace, 

T' undo the past and eke your broken years.' — Id. 

Vain tamp 1 ring has hut foster 1 d his disease; 

1 Tis desperate, and he sleeps the sleep of death. — Cowper. 

I have a pain upon my forehead here — 

Why that's with watching ; 'twill away again. — Shakspeare. 

Til to the woods, among the happier brutes ; 

Come, let's away ; hark ! the shrill horn resounds. — Smith. 

What prayer and supplication soever be made. — Bible. 

By the grace of God we have had our conversation in the 
world, and more abundantly to you ward. — Id. 

LESSON III. — FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

FIGURE I. ELLIPSIS. 

And now he faintly kens the bounding fawn, 

And [ — ] villager [ — ] abroad at early toil. — Beattie. 

The cottage curs at [ — ] early pilgrim bark. — Id. 

'Tis granted, and no plainer truth appears, 

Our most important [ — ] are our earliest years. — Cowper, 

To earn her aid, with fix'd and anxious eye, 

He looks on nature's [ — ] and on fortune's course ; 

Too much in vain. — ATcenside. 

True dignity is his, whose tranquil mind 

Virtue has rais'd above the things [ — ] below ; 

Who, ev'ry hope and [ — ] fear to Heav'n resign'd, 

Shrinks not, though Fortune aim her deadliest blow. — Beattie, 

For longer in that paradise to dwell, 

The law [ — ] I gave to nature, him forbids. — Milton. 

So little mercy shows [ — ] who needs so much. — Cowper, 

Bliss is the same [ — ] in subject, as [ — ] in king; 

In [ — ] who obtain defence, and [ — ] who defend. — Pope. 

Man made for kings ! those optics are but dim 

That tell you so — say rather, they [ — ] for him. — Cowper, 

Man may dismiss compassion from his heart, 

But God will never [ ]. — Id, 



276 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 

Mortals whose pleasures are their only care, 

First wish to be impos'd on, and then are [ — ]. — Id. 

Vigour [ — ] from toil, from trouble patience grows. — Beattie. 

Where now the rill melodious, [ — ] pure, and cool, 

And meads, with life, and mirth, and beauty crown'd 1 — Id. 

How dead the vegetable kingdom lies ! 

How dumb the tuneful [ ] ! — Thomson. 

Self-love and Reason to one end aspire, 

Pain [ — ] their aversion, pleasure [ — ] their desire ; 

But greedy that its object would devour, 

This [ — ] taste the honey, and not wound the flower. — Pope. 

LESSON IV.' — FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 
FIGURE II. PLEONASM. 

According to their deeds, accordingly he will repay ; fury to 
his adversaries, recompense to his enemies. — Bible. 

My head is filled with dew, and my lochs with the drops of 
the night. — Solomon's Song, v, 2. 

Thou hast chastised me, and I was chastised, as a bullock un- 
accustomed to the yoke : turn thou me, and I shall be turned; 
for thou art the Lord my God. — Jer., xxxi, 18. 

Consider the lilies of the field how they grow. — Matt., vi, 28. 

He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord. — 2 Cor., x, 17. 

He too is witness, noblest of the train 

That waits on man, the flight-performing horse. — Cowper. 

FIGURE III. SYLLEPSIS. 

Thou art Simon the son of Jona: thou shalt be called 
Cephas ;' which is, by interpretation,, a stone. — John, i, 42. 

Thus saith the Lord of hosts : ' Behold I will break the bow 
of Elam, the chief of their might.' — Jer., xlix, 35. 

Behold I lay in Zion a stumbling-stone and rock of offence ; 
and whosoever believeth on him shall not be ashamed. — ifom., 
ix, 33. 

Thus Conscience pleads her cause within the breast, 
Though long rebell'd against, not yet suppress'd. — Cowper, 

Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much ; 
Wisdom is humble that he knows no more. — Id. 

For those the race of Israel oft forsook 
Their living strength, and unfrequented left 
His righteous altar, bowing lowly down 
To bestial gods. — Milton. 



CHAP. V.] PROSODY. — PABSIHG. — PRAXIS IX 
v. — FIGV TAX. 

Let me tell gp*, ' rself 

Are much conderr 

To ?*ell and mart gpoor offices for gold. — Shakzpea.re. 
Cc me, PhilomeLus ; let us insta. 

rturn his b 2 loir. — Ti>.r/rnA t yn. 

Th e » shall rise: the on 

Shall finish what the begum* — Po^>e. 

.1 was that temple built by 8 

Than nftoM none richer reign'd o ; ; . — £. Erwn. 

He spoke : with fatal eagerness we fo/rn. 
And gutt the she e : tin'd to return.— Z>tfy. 

Still as he pass'd, the nations he sublimes. — Thornton. 
Sometimes, with early morn, he mounted gay. — Id. 

nSUKB V. HYPEBBAT 

Such renting found fhe — Milton. 

though bim : . . — Thomson. 

Where, "midst the 

.sand wondrous forms descries. — Beattie. 
Yet hi much bounty Is in G h grace, 

T.iat who al n, 

Them he himself to glory will advance. — Mil*. . 
But opt the mind or fancy Is to rove 

.neck : d, and of her rovi:. g — Id. 

No quick r^ 7 y to (minora question b 
B . i pe as 1 . . -.till prevent mistake. — Lenham. 

LESSON VI. — FIGURES OF RE 
-.:: : — .:.::lz. 
Human greai hort and transitory, of M.€ o</oi/r <>f in- 

cense in the fire. — I)r. Joknm 

Terrestrial happiness is of short continue - 

of the flame in wasting its fuel, ike fragrant flower is passing 
away in it* own odours. — i#. 

nod is o.s the earmgmal juntains\ and 

thy smile, as the dawn of the wemal dag. — Id. 

Plants rah tenderness are seldom strong } 

And wit. :;ine. the i :-ild, 

Lik- — . per. 



278 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 
FIGURE II. METAPHOR. 

Cathmon, thy name is a pleasant gale. — Ossian. 

Rolled into himself he flew, wide on the bosom of winds. 
The old oak felt his departure, and shook its whistling head. — Id. 

Carazan gradually lost the inclination to do good, as he ac- 
quired the power ; and as the hand of time scattered snow upon 
his head, the freezing influence extended to his bosom.— 
Hawkesworth. 

The sun grew weary of gilding the palaces of Morad ; the 
clouds of sorrow gathered round his head ; and the tempest of 
hatred roared about his dwelling. — Dr. Johnson. 

The tree of knowledge, blasted by disputes, 
Produces sapless leaves in stead of fruits. — Denham. 

LESSON VII. — FIGURES OF RHETORIC, 

FIGURE III. ALLEGORY. 

" But what think ye 1 — A certain man had two sons ; and 
he came to the first, and said, ' Son, go work to-day in my vine- 
yard.' He answered and said, 'I will not:' but afterward he 
repented, and went. And he came to the second, and said 
likewise. And he answered and said, 'I go, sir:' and went 
not. Whether of them twain did the will of his father'?" 
They say unto him, " The first."-— Matt., xxi, 28. 

FIGURE IV. METONYMY. 

Swifter than a whirlwind, flies the leaden death. — Hervey. 

'Be all the dead forgot,' said Foldath's bursting wrath. 
'Did not I fail in the field V — Ossian. 

Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke. — Gray. 

Firm in his love, resistless in his hate, 

His arm is conquest, and his frown is fate. — Day. 

At length the world, renew'd by calm repose, 

Was strong for toil ; the dappled morn arose. — Parnell. 

What modes of sight betwixt each wide extreme, 

The mole's dim curtain and the lynx's beam ! 

Of hearing, from the life that fills the flood, 

To that which warbles through the vernal wood ! — Pope. 

FIGURE V. SYNECDOCHE. 

'Twas then his threshold first receiv'd a guest. — Parnell. 

For yet by swains alone the world he knew, 

Whose feet came wand'ring o'er the nightly dew.— Id. 



CHAP. V.] PROSODY. — PARSING. — PRAXIS IX. 279 

Flush'd by the spirit of the genial year, 

Now from the virgin's cheek a fresher bloom 

Shoots, less and less, the live carnation round. — Thomson, 

LESSON VIII. — FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

FIGURE VI. HYPERBOLE, 

I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice ; his spear, the blasted 
fir ; his shield, the rising moon ; he sat on the shore, like a 
cloud of mist on the hill. — Ossian. 

At which the universal host up sent 
A shout that tore Hell's concave, and beyond 
Frighted the reign of Chaos and old Night. — Milton. 
Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood 
Clean from my hand 1 No ; this my hand will rather 
The multitudinous seas incarnadine, 
Making the green one red. — Shakspeare. 
Endless tears flow down in streams. — Swift. 

FIGURE VII. VISION. 

How mighty is their defence who reverently trust in the arm 
of God ! How powerfully do they contend who fight with 
lawful weapons ! Hark ! 'Tis the voice of eloquence, pour- 
ing forth the living energies of the soul ; pleading, with gener< 
ous indignation, the cause of injured humanity against lawless 
might, and reading the awful destiny that awaits the oppres- 
sor ! — I see the stern countenance of despotism overawed ! I 
see the eye fallen that kindled the elements of war ! I see the 
brow relaxed that scowled defiance at hostile thousands ! I see 
the knees tremble that trod with firmness the embattled field ! 
Fear has entered that heart which ambition had betrayed into 
violence ! The tyrant feels himself a man, and subject to the 
weakness of humanity ! — Behold ! and tell me, is that power 
contemptible which can thus find access to the sternest hearts ? 
— G. Brown. 

LESSON IX. — FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 
FIGURE VIII. APOSTROPHE. 

Yet still they breathe destruction, still go on. 
Inhumanly ingenious to find out 
New pains for life, new terrors for the grave ; 
Artificers of death! Still monarchs dream 
Of universal empire growing up 
From universal ruin. Blast the design, 
Gh-eat God of Hosts / nor lei thy creatures fall 
Untitled victims at Ambition's shrine. — Porteus. 



280 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 
FIGURE IX. PERSONIFICATION. 

Hail, sacred Polity, by Freedom rear'd ! 

Hail, sacred Freedom, when by Law restrain'd ! 

Without you, what were man? A grov'ling herd, 

In darkness, wretchedness, and want enchain'd. — Beattie. 

Let cheerful Memory, from her purest cells, 
Lead forth a goodly train of Virtues fair, 
I Cherish'd in early youth, now paying back 
With tenfold usury the pious care. — Porteus. 

FIGURE X. EROTESIS. 

He that chastiseth the heathen, shall not he correct ? he that 
teacheth man knowledge, shall not he know? — Psal., xciv, 10. 

Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots ? 
then may ye also do good, that are accustomed to do evil. — 
Jeremiah^ xiii, 23. 

FIGURE XI. ECPHONESIS. 

O that my head were waters, and mine eyes a fountain of 
tears, that I might weep day and night for the slain of the 
daughter of my people ! O that I had in the wilderness a 
lodging place of way -faring men, that I might leave my people, 
and go from them ! — Jeremiah, ix, 1. 

LESSON X. — FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 
FIGURE XII. ANTITHESIS. 

On this side, modesty is engaged ; on that, impudence : on 
this, chastity ; on that, lewdness : on this, integrity ; on that, 
fraud : on this, piety ; on that, profaneness : on this, constancy ; 
on that, fickleness : on this, honour ; on that, baseness : on this, 
moderation; on that, unbridled passion. — Cicero. 

She, from the rending earth, and bursting skies, 

Saw gods descend, and fiends infernal rise ; 

Here fix'd the dreadful, there the blest abodes; 

Fear made her devils, and weak hope her gods. — Pope. 

FIGURE XIII. CLIMAX. 

Virtuous actions are necessarily approved by the awakened 
conscience ; and when they are approved, they are commended 
to practice ; and when they are practised, they become easy ; 
and when they become easy, they afford pleasure ; and when 
they afford pleasure, they are done frequently ; and when they 
are done frequently, they are confirmed by habit : and con- 
firmed habit is a kind of second nature. 



CHAP. VI.] PKOSODY. — QUESTIONS. 281 

FIGURE XIV. IRONY. 

And it came to pass at noon, that Elijah mocked them, and 
said, ' Cry aloud ; for he is a god : either he is talking, or he 
is pursuing, or he is in [on] a journey, or peradventure he 
sleepeth, and must be awaked !' — 1 Kings, xviii, 27. 
Some lead a life unblamable and just, 
Their own dear virtue their unshaken trust ; 
They never sin — or if (as all offend) 
Some trivial slips their daily walk attend, 
The poor are near at hand, the charge is small, 
A slight gratuity atones for all. — Cowper. 



CHAPTER YL— EXAMINATION. 
QUESTIONS ON PROSODY. 

LESSON I. — PUNCTUATION. 

01 what does Prosody treat 1 

What is Punctuation ? 

What are principal points, or marks ? 

What pauses are denoted by the first four points ? 

What pauses are required by the other four? 

What is the general use of the comma ? 

How many rules for the comma are there ? and what are their heads! 

What says Rule 1st of simple senttnces? — Rule 2d of simple members? — Rule 
3d of more than two words? — Rule 4th of only two zuords ? — Rule 5th of 
words in pairs ? — Rule 6th of words put absolule ? — Rule 7th of words in ap- 
position f— Rule 8th of adjectives ?— Rule 9th of finite verbs? — Rule 10th of 
infinitives?—R\\\o 11th of participles ? — Rule 12th of adverbs ? — Rule 13th 
of" conjunctions? — Rule 14th of prepositions ? — Rule 15th of interjections? — 
Rule 16th of woi'ds r peated ? — Rule 17th of dependent quotations? 

LESSON II. — PUNCTUATION. 

How many and what exceptions are there to Rule 1st for the comma? — to 
Rule 2d ?— to Rule 3d ?— to Rule 4th ?— to Rule 5th ?— to Rule 6th ?— to 
Rule 7th?— to Rule 8th?— to Rule 9th ?— to Rule 10th?— to Rule 11th?— 
to Rule 12th ?— to Rule 13th ?— to Rule 14th ?— to Rule 15th ?— to Rule 
16th ?— to Rule 17 ? 

When are different words said to be in the same construction? 

LESSON III. — PUNCTUATION. 

•What is the general use of the semicolon ? 

jllow many rules are there for the semicolon ? and what are their heads ? 

What says Rule 1st of compound members? — Rule 2d of simple members? — 

Rule 3d of words in apposition? 
What is the general uso of the colon ? 

How many rules are there for the colon? and what are their heads ? 
What says Rule 1st of additional remarks?— Rule 2d of greater pauses ? — 

Rule 3d of independent quotations ? 
What is the general use of the period ? 

How many rules are there for the period? and what are the : r heads? 
What says Rule 1st of distinct sentences? — Rule 2d of allied sentences? — Rulo 

3d of abbreviations ? 

24* 



282 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 

LESSON IV. — PUNCTUATION. 

"What is the use of the dash ? 

How many rules are there for the dash ? and what are their heads ? 

What says Rule 1st of abrupt pauses ? — Rule 2d of emphatic pauses t — Rule 

3d of faulty dashes f 
"What is the use of the eroteme, or note of interrogation ? 
How many rules are there for it ? and what are their heads ? 
What says Rule 1st of questions direct f — Rule 2d of questions united? — Rule 

3d of questions indirect f 
What is the use of the ecphoneme, or note of exclamation ? 
How many rules are there for it? and what are their heads? 
What says Rule 1st of interjections ? — Rule 2d of invocations t — Rule 8d of 

exclamatory questions t 

LESSON V. — PUNCTUATION. 

What is the use of the curves, or marks of parenthesis ? 
How many rules are there for them ? and what are their heads ? 
What says Rule 1st of the parenthesis ? — Rule 2d of included points t 
What is said about other marks ? 

What is the use of the apostrophe ? — of the hyphen ? — of the diaeresis? — of 
the acute accent ? — of the grave accent ? — of the circumflex ? — of the breve ? 
— of the macron ? — of the ellipsis ? — of the caret ? — of the brace ? — of the 
section ? — of the paragraph ? — of the quotation points ? — of the crotchets ? — ■ 
of the index? — of the asterisk, the obelisk, the double dagger, and the 
parallels ? — of the asterism ? — of the cedilla ? 

[Having correctly answered the foregoing questions, the pupil should be taught to 
apply what he has learned; and, for this purpose, he may be required to read the pre- 
face to this volume, or a portion of any other accurately pointed book, and to assign 
a reason for every mark he finds.] 

LESSON VI. — UTTERANCE. 

What is Utterance ? and what does it include ? 

What is pronunciation? — What does pronunciation require? 

What are the just powers of the letters ? 

What is accent? — Is every word accented? 

Can a word have more than one accent ? 

What four things distinguish the elegant speaker ? 

What is elocution ? — What does elocution require ? — What is emphasis ? 

What are pauses ? and what is said of their duration ? 

What are inflections ? — What is called the rising inflection? — What is called 

the falling inflection ? — How are these inflections exemplified ? — How are 

they used in asking questions ? 
What are tones ? and why do they deserve particular attention? 

LESSON VII. — FIGURES. 

What is a Figure in grammar? — How many kinds of figures are there? 

What is a figure of orthography ? — Name the figures of this kind. 

What is mimesis ? — What is an archaism ? 

What is a figure of etymology? 

How many and what are the figures of etymology? 

What is aphaeresis ? — prosthesis ? — syncope ? — apocope ? — paragoge ? — diaere- 
sis ? — synasresis ? — tmesis ? 

What is a figure of syntax ? — How many and what are the figures of syntax ? 

What is ellipsis in grammar ? Are sentences often elliptical ? 

How can there be an ellipsis of the article ? — the noun ? — the adjective ? — the 
pronoun? — the verb? — the participle? — the adverb? — the conjunction?— 
the preposition ? — the interjection ? — a phrase or clause ? 

What is pleonasm? — and when is this figure allowable ? 

What is syllepsis ? — enallage ? — hyperbaton ? — what is said of hyberbaton ? 

LESSON Vni. — FIGURES. 

What is a figure of rhetoric? — What name have some such figures? 



CHAP. VII.] PEOSODY.— EXERCISES. 283 

Do figures of rhetoric often occur ? — On what are they founded f 

How "many and what are the principal figures of rhetoric ? 

What is a simile ? — a metaphor? — an allegory ? — a metonymy? — synecdoche? 

— hyperbole ? — vision ? — apostrophe ? — personification ? — erotesis ? — ec- 

phonesis ?— antithesis ? — climax ? — irony ? 

LESSON IX.— VERSIFICATION. 

"What is Versification? — What is the qaantity^ of a syllable ? 

How is quantity denominated ? — How is it said to be proportioned ? 

On what does quantity depend? and what sounds are the most easily 

lengthened ? 
What words are variable in quantity? and what syllables are fixed ? 
What is rhyme? — What is blank verse ? 

Of what does a line of poetry consist ? — Of what does afoot consist ? 
What are the principal English feet ? 
What is an iambus ? — a trochee ? — an anapest ? — a dactyl? 
How many kinds of verse have we ? 
What is scanning, or scansion ? 

LESSON X. — VERSIFICATION. 

What syllables are accented in an iambic line ? 
What aire the several measures of iambic verse ? 
What syllables are accented in a trochaic line ? 
What are the several measures of trochaic verse? 
What syllables are accented in an anapestic line ? 
What are the several measures of anapestic verse? 
What syllables are accented in a dactylic line ? 
What are the several measures of dactylic verse ? 

[Now parse the ten lessons of the Eighth Praxis ; explaining every thing of which 
the teacher may demand an explanation.] 



CHAPTER VII.— FOR WRITING. 

EXERCISES IN PROSODY. 

%£T~ LWhen the pupil can readily answer all the questions on Prosody, and apply 
the rules of punctuation to any composition in which the points are rightly inserted 
he should write out the following exercises, supplying what is required/] 

EXERCISE I.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma where it is 
requisite. 

Examples under Rule 1. 
The dogmatist's assurance is paramount to argument. 
The whole course of his argumentation comes to nothing. 
The fieldmouse builds her garner under ground. 
Exc. The first principles of almost all sciences are few. 
"What he gave me to publish was but a small part. 
To remain insensible to such provocation is apathy. 
Minds ashamed of poverty would be proud of affluence. 

Under Rule 2. 
I was eyes to the blind and feet was I to the lame. 
They are gone but the remembrance of them is sweet. 



284 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 

He has passed it is likely through varieties of fortune. 
The mind though free has a governor within itself. 
They I doubt not oppose the bill on public principles. 
Be silent be grateful and adore. 

He is an adept in language who always speaks the truth. • 
The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong. 
Exc. 1. He that has far to go should not hurry. 
Hobbes believed the eternal truths which he opposed. 
Feeble are all pleasures in which the heart has no share. 
Exc. 2. A good name is better than precious ointment. 
Thinkst thou that duty shall have dread to speak? 
The spleen is seldom felt were Flora reigns. 

Under Rule 3. 
The city army court espouse my cause. 
Wars pestilences and diseases are terrible instructors. 
Walk daily in a pleasant airy and umbrageous garden. 
Wit spirits faculties but make it worse. 
Men wives and children stare cry out and run. 

Under Rule 4. 
Hope and fear are essentials in religion. 
Praise and adoration are perfective of our souls. 
We know bodies and their properties most perfectly. 
Satisfy yourselves with what is rational and attainable. 
Exc 1. God will rather look to the inward motions of th« 

mind than to the outward form of the body. 
Gentleness is unassuming in opinion and temperate in zeal, 
Exc. 2. He has experienced prosperity and adversity, 
All sin essentially is and must be mortal. 
Exc. 3. One person is chosen chairman or moderator. 
Duration or time is^measured by motion. 
The governor or viceroy is chosen annually. 
Exc. 4. Reflection reason still the ties improve. 
His neat plain parlour wants our modern style. 

Under Rule 5. 
I inquired and rejected consulted and deliberated. 
Seed-time and harvest cold and heat summer and winter day 

and night shall not cease. 

EXERCISE II.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma where it u 
requisite. 

Under Rule 6. 
The night being dark they did not proceed. 



CHAP. VII.] PROSODY. — EXERCISES. 285 

There being no other coach we had no alternative. 
Remember my son that human life is the journey of a day. 
All circumstances considered it seems right. 
He that overcoraeth to him will I give power. 
Your land strangers devour it in your presence. 
Ah sinful nation a people laden with iniquity ! 

With heads declin'd ye cedars homage pay ; 

Be smooth ye rocks ye rapid floods give way ! 

Under Rule 7. 

Now Philomel sweet songstress charms the night. 

'Tis chanticleer the shepherd's clock announcing day. 

The evening star love's harbinger appears. 

The queen of night fair Dian smiles serene. 

There is yet one man Micaiah the son of Imlah. 

Our whole company man by man ventured down. 

As a work of wit the Dunciad has few equals. 
In the same temple the resounding wood 
All vocal beings hymned their equal God. 

Exc. 1. The last king of Rome was Tarquinius Superbus. 

Bossuet highly eulogizes Maria Theresa of Austria. 

Exc. 2. For he went and dwelt by the brook Cherith. 

Remember the example of the patriarch Joseph. 

Exc. 3. I wisdom dwell with prudence. 

Ye fools be ye of an understanding heart. 

I tell you that which you yourselves do know. 

Exc. 4. I crown thee king of intimate delights. 

1 count the world a stranger for thy sake. 

And this makes friends such miracles below. 

God has pronounced it death to taste that tree. 

Grace makes the slave a freeman. 

Under Rule 8. 
Deaf with the noise I took my hasty flight. 
Him piteous of his youth soft disengage. 
I played a while obedient to the fair. 
Love free as air spreads his light wings and flies. 

Then active still and unconfined his mind 

Explores the vast extent of ages past. 

But there is yet a liberty unsung 

By poets and by senators unpraised. 
Exc. I will marry a wife beautiful as the Houries. 
He was a man able to speak upon doubtful questions 
These are the persons anxious for the change. 
Are they men worthy of confidence and support ? 



286 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PAET IV. 

Under Rule 9. 
Poverty wants some things — avarice all things. 
Honesty has one face — flattery two. 
One king is too soft and easy — an other too fiery. 
Mankind's esteem they court — and he his own : 
Theirs the wild chase of false felicities ; 
His the compos'd possession of the true. 

EXERCISE III.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma where it is 

requisite. 

Under Rule 10. 

My desire is to live in peace. 

The great difficulty was to compel them to pay their debts. 

To strengthen our virtue God bids us trust in him. 

I made no bargain with you to live always drudging. 

To sum up all her tongue confessed the shrew. 

To proceed my own adventure was still more laughable. 
We come not with design of wasteful prey 
To drive the country force the swains away. 

Under Rule 11. 
Having given this answer he departed. 
Some sunk to beasts find pleasure end in pain. 
Eased of her load subjection grows more light. 
Death still draws nearer never seeming near. 
He lies full low gored with wounds and weltering in his blood. 
Kind is fell Lucifer compared to thee. 
Man considered in himself is helpless and wretched. 
Like scattered down by howling Eurus blown. 
He with wide nostrils snorting skims the wave. 
Youth is properly speaking introductory to manhood. 
Exc. He kept his eye fixed on the country before him. 
They have their part assigned them to act. 
Years will not repair the injuries done by him. 

Under Rule 12. 
Yes we both were philosophers. 
However providence saw fit to cross our design. 
Besides I know that the eye of the public is upon me. 
The fact certainly is much otherwise. 
For nothing surely can be more inconsistent. 

Under Rule 13. 
For in such retirement the soul is strengthened. 



CHAP. VII.] PROSODY.-— EXERCISES. 287 

It engages our desires ; and in some degree satisfies them. 
But of every Christian virtue piety is an essential part. 
The English verb is variable ; as love lovest loves. 

Under Rule 14. 
In a word charity is the soul of social life. 
By the bowstring I can repress violence and fraud. 
Some by being too artful forfeit the reputation of probity. 
With regard to morality I was not indifferent. 

Under Rule 15. 
Lo earth receives him from the bending skies ! 
Behold I am against thee O inhabitant of the valley 1 

Under Rule 16. 
I would never consent never never never. 
His teeth did chatter chatter chatter still. 
Come come come come — to bed to bed to bed. 

Under Rule 17. 
He cried ' Cause every man to go out from me.' 
4 Almet' said he ' remember what thou hast seen.' 
I answered ' Mock not thy servant who is but a worm before 
thee.' 

EXERCISE IV.— PUNCTUATION. 

1. Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma and the 
semicolon where they are requisite. 

Under Rule 1. 

* Man is weak* answered his companion ' knowledge is more 

than equivalent to force.' 
To judge rightly of the present we must oppose it to the past 
for all judgment is comparative and of the future nothing 
can be known. 

* Content is natural wealth' says Socrates to which I shall add 

* luxury is artificial poverty.' 

Converse and love mankind might strongly draw 
When love was liberty and nature law. 

Under Rule 2. 
Be wise to-day 'tis madness to defer. 
The present all their care the future his. 
Wit makes an enterpriser sense a man. 
Ask thought for joy grow rich and hoard within. 
Song soothes our pains and age has pains to soothe. 
Here an enemy encounters there a rival supplants him. 
Our answer to their reasons is No to their scoffs nothing. 



288 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 

Under Rule 3. 
In Latin there are six cases namely the nominative the genitive 

the dative the accusative the vocative and the ablative. 
Most English nouns form the plural by adding s as boy boys 

nation nations king Icings bay bays. 
Bodies are such as are endued with a vegetable soul as plants 

a sensitive soul as animals or a rational soul as the body of 

man. 

2. Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma, the semi- 
colon, and the colon where they are requisite. 

Under Rule 1. 
Death wounds to cure we fall we rise we reign. 
Bliss ! — there is none but unprecarious bliss. 
That is the gem sell all and purchase that. 
Beware of usurpation God is the judge of all. 

Under Rule 2. 
I have the world here before me I will review it at leisure 

surely happiness is somewhere to be found. 
A melancholy enthusiast courts persecution and when he can- 
not obtain it afflicts himself with absurd penances but the 
holiness of St. Paul consisted in the simplicity of a pious 
life. 

Observe his awful portrait and admire 
Nor stop at wonder imitate and live. 

Under Rule 3. 
Such is our Lord's injunction " Watch and pray." 
He died praying for his persecutors " Father forgive them 

they know not what they do." 
On his cane was inscribed this motto "Festina 



3. Copy the following sentences, and insert the comma, the semi- 
colon, the colon, and the period where they are requisite. 

Under Rule 1. 

Then appeared the sea and the dry land the mountains rose 
and the rivers flowed the sun and moon began their course 
in the skies herbs and plants clothed the ground the air the 
earth and the waters were stored with their respective in- 
habitants at last man was made in the image of God 

In general those parents have most reverence who most deserve 
it for he that lives well cannot be despised 

Under Rule 2. 
Civil accomplishments frequently give rise to fame but a dis- 



CHAP. VII.] PROSODY. — EXERCISES. 289 

tinction is to be made between fame and true honour the 
statesman the orator or the poet may be famous while yet 
the man himself is far from being honoured 

Under Rule 3. 

Glass was invented in Eng by Benalt a monk A D 664 
The Roman Era U C commenced A C 1753 years 
Here is the Literary Life of S T Coleridge Esq 

EXERCISE V.~ PUNCTUATION. 

1. Copy the following sentences, and insert the dash, and such 

other points as are necessary. 

Under Rule 1. 

You say famous very often and I don't know exactly what it 

means a famous uniform famous doings What does famous 

mean 
O why famous means Now don't you know what famous means 

It means It is a word that people say It is the fashion to say 

it It means it means famous. 

Under Rule 2. 

But this life is not all there is there is full surely an other 
state abiding us And if there is what is thy prospect O re- 
morseless obdurate Thou shalt hear it would be thy wisdom 
to think thou now nearest the sound of that trumpet which 
shall awake the dead Return O yet return to the Father 
of mercies and live 

The future pleases Why The present pains 
But that's a secret yes which all men know 

2. Copy the following sentences, and insert the note of inter- 

rogation, and such other points as are necessary. 

Under Rule 1. 

Does nature bear a tyrant's breast 

Is she the friend of stern control 
Wears she the despot's purple vest 

Or fetters she the free-born soul 

Why should a man whose blood is warm within 
Sit like his grandsire cut in alabaster 

Who art thou courteous stranger and from whence 
Why roam thy steps to this abandon'd dale. 

13 



290 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 

Under Mule 2. 

Who bid the stork Columbus-like explore 
Heavens not his own and worlds unknown before 
Who calls the council states the certain day 
Who forms the phalanx and who points the way 

Under Mule 3. 

Ask of thy mother Earth why oaks are made 
Taller and stronger than the weeds they shade 
They asked me who I was and whither I was going 

3. Copy the following sentences, and insert the note of excla- 

mation, and such other points as are necessary. 

Under Mule 1. 
Alas how is that rugged heart forlorn 
Behold the victor vanquish'd by the worm 
Bliss sublunary bliss proud words and vain 

Under Mule 2. 

O Popular Applause what heart of man 
Is proof against thy sweet seducing charms 
More than thy balm O Gilead heals the wound 

Under Mule 3. 

How often have I loitered o'er thy green 
Where humble happiness endear'd each scene 
What black despair what horror fills his heart 

4. Copy the following sentences, and insert the marks of par- 

enthesis, and such other points as are necessary. 

Under Mule 1. 

And all the question wrangle e'er so long 
Is only this If God has placed him wrong 
And who what God foretells who speaks in things 
Still louder than in words shall dare deny 

Under Mule 2. 

Say was it virtue more though Heav'n ne'er gave 
Lamented Digby sunk thee to the grave 
Where is that thrift that avarice of time 
O glorious avarice thought of death inspires 
And oh the last last what can words express 
Thought reach the last last silence of a friend 



CHAP. VII.] PKOSODY. — EXERCISES. 291 

EXERCISE VI.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy the following promiscuous sentences, and insert the points 
which they require. 

As one of them opened his sack he espied his money 

They cried out the more exceedingly Crucify him 

The soldiers' counsel was to kill the prisoners 

Great injury these vermin mice and rats do in the field 

It is my son's coat an evil beast hath devoured him 

Peace of all wordly blessings is the most valuable • 

By this time the very foundation was removed 

The only words he uttered were I am a Roman citizen 

Some distress either felt or feared gnaws like a worm 

How then must I determine Have I no interest If I have not I 

am stationed here to no purpose Harris 
In the fire the destruction was so swift sudden vast and miser. 

able as to have no parallel in story 
Dionysius the tyrant of Sicily was far from being happy 
I ask now Verres what thou hast to advance 
Excess began and sloth sustains the trade 
Fame can never reconcile a man to a death bed 
They that sail on the sea tell of the danger 
Be doers of the word and not hearers only 
The storms of wint'ry time will quickly pass 
Here hope that smiling angel stands 
Disguise I see thou art a wickedness 
There are no tricks in plain and simple faith. 
True love strikes root in reason passion's foe 
Two gods divide them all Pleasure and Gain 
I am satisfied My son has done his duty 
Remember Almet the vision which thou hast seen 
I beheld an enclosure beautiful as the gardens of paradise 
The knowledge which I have received I will communicate 
But I am not yet happy and therefore I despair 
Wretched mortals said I to what purpose are you busy 
Bad as the world is respect is always paid to virtue 
In a word he views men in the clear sunshine of charity 
This being the case I am astonished and amazed 
These men approached him and saluted nim king 
Excellent and obliging sages these undoubtedly 
Yet at the same time the man himself undergoes a change 
One constant effect of idleness is to nourish the passions 
You heroes regard nothing but glory 
Take care lest while you strive to reach the top you fall 
Proud and presumptuous they can brook no opposition 



292 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 

Nay some awe of religion may still subsist 

Then said he Lo I come to do thy will O God 

As for me behold I am in your hand 

Now I Paul myself beseech you 

He who lives always in public cannot live to his own soul 

whereas he who retires remains calm 
Therefore behold I even I will utterly forget you 
This text speaks only of those to whom it speaks 
Yea he warmeth himself and saith Aha I am warm 
King Agrippa believest thou the prophets 

EXERCISE VII.— PUNCTUATION. 

Copy the following promiscuous sentences, and insert the points 
which they require. 

To whom can riches give repute or trust 

Content or pleasure but the good and just Pope 

To him no high no low no great no small 

He fills he bounds connects and equals all Id 

Reason's whole pleasure all the joys of sense 

Lie in three words health peace and competence Id 

Not so for once indulg'd they sweep the main 

Deaf to the call or hearing hear in vain Anon 

Say will the falcon stooping from above 

Smit with her varying plumage spare the dove Pope 

Throw Egypt's by and offer in its stead 

Offer the crown on Bernice's head Id 

Falsely luxurious will not man awake 

And springing from the bed of sloth enjoy 

The cool the fragrant and the silent hour Thomson 

Yet thus it is nor otherwise can be 

So far from aught romantic what I sing Young 

Thyself first know then love a self there is 

Of virtue fond that kindles at her charms Id 

How far that little candle throws his beams 

So shines a good deed in a naughty world Shakspeare 

You have too much respect upon the world 

They lose it that do buy it with much care Id 

How many things by season season'd are 

To their right praise and true perfection Id 

Canst thou descend from converse with the skies 

And seize thy bTother's throat for what a clod Young 



CHAP. VII.] PEOSODY. — EXEKCISES. 293 

In two short precepts all your business lies 

Would you be great be virtuous and be wise Denham 

But sometimes virtue starves while vice is fed 

What then is the reward of virtue bread Pope 

A life all turbulence and noise may seem % 

To him that leads it wise and to be prais'd 

But wisdom is a pearl with most success 

Sought in still waters and beneath clear skies Oowper 

All but the swellings of the softened heart 

That waken not disturb the tranquil mind Thomson 

Inspiring God who boundless spirit all 

And unremitting energy pervades 

Adjusts sustains and agitates the whole Id 

Ye ladies for indiff'rent in your cause 

I should deserve to forfeit all applause 

Whatever shocks or gives the least offence 

To virtue delicacy truth or sense 

Try the criterion 'tis a faithful guide 

Nor has nor can have Scripture on its side Cowper 

EXERCISE VIII.— SCANNING. 

Divide the following verses into the feet which compose them, and 
distinguish by marks the long and the short syllables* 

DEITY. 

Alone thou sitst above the everlasting hills, 
And all immensity of space thy presence fills: 

Eor thou alone art God ; — as God thy saints adore thee ; 

Jehovah is thy name ; — they have no gods before thee. — G.B* 

HEALTH. 

Up the dewy mountain, Health is bounding lightly ; 

On her brows a garland, twin'd with richest posies : 
Gay is she, elate with hope, and smiling sprightly ; 

Redder is her cheek, and sweeter, than the rose is. — Gf. B+ 

IMPENITENCE. 

The impenitent sinner whom mercy empowers, 
Dishonours that goodness which seeks to restore ; 

As the sands of the desert are water'd by showers, .. 
Yet barren. and fruitless remain as before. — G. Brown* 

PIETY. 

Holy and pure are the pleasures of piety, 
Drawn from the fountain of mercy and love ; 

Endless, exhaustless, exempt from satiety, 

Rising unearthly, and soaring above. — G. Brown. 
25* 



294 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PART IV. 

A SIMILE. 

The bolt that strikes the tow'ring cedar dead, 

Oft passes harmless o'er the hazel's head. — G. Brown. 

AN OTHER. 

" Yet to the general's voice they soon obey'd 
Innumerable. As when the potent rod 
Of Amram's son, in Egypt's evil day, 
Wav'd round the coast, up call'd a pitchy cloud 
Of locusts, warping on the eastern wind, 
That o'er the realm of impious Pharaoh hung 
Like night, and darken'd all the land of Nile." — Milton. 

ELEGIAC STANZA. 

Thy name is dear — 'tis virtue balm'd in love ; 

Yet e'en thy name a pensive sadness brings. 

Ah ! wo the day, our hearts were doom'd to prove, 

That fondest love but points affliction's stings ! — G. Brown. 

CUPID. 

Zephyrs, moving bland, and breathing fragrant 

With the sweetest odours of the spring, 
O'er the winged boy, a thoughtless vagrant, 

Slumb'ring in the grove, their perfumes fling. — G. Brown 

DIVINE POWER. 

When the winds o'er Gennesaret roar'd, 

And the billows tremendously rose, 
The Saviour but utter'd the word, 

They were hush'd to the calmest repose. — G. Brown. 

INVITATION. 

Come from the mount of the leopard, spouse, 

Come from the den of the lion ; 
Come to the tent of thy shepherd, spouse, 

Come to the mountain of Zion. — G. Brown a 

ADMONITION. 

In the days of thy youth, 

Remember thy God : 
O ! forsake not his truth, 

Incur not his rod. — G. Brown. 

COMMENDATION. 

Constant and duteous, 

Meek as the dove, 
How art thou beauteous, 

Daughter of love ! — G. Brown. 



CHAP. VII.] PROSODY.— EXERCISES, 295 

EDWIN, AN ODE, 

I. STROPHE. 

Led by the pow'r of song, and nature's love, 
Which raise the soul all vulgar themes above f 
The mountain grove 
Would Edwin rove, 
In pensive mood, alone ; 
And seek the woody dell, 
Where noontide shadows fell, 
Cheering, 
Veering, 
Mov'd by the zephyr's swell. 
Here nurs'd he thoughts to genius only known, 
When nought was heard around 
But sooth'd the rest profound 
Of rural beauty on her mountain throne. 
Nor less he lov'd (rude nature's child) 
The elemental conflict wild ; 
When, fold on fold, above was pil'd 
The watery swathe, careering on the wind. 
Such scenes he saw 
With solemn awe, 
As in the presence of th' Eternal Mind. 
Fix'd he gaz'd, 
Tranc'd and rais'd, 
Sublimely rapt in awful pleasure undefin'd. 

II. ANTISTROPHE. 

Reckless of dainty joys, he finds delight 
Where feebler souls but tremble with affrights 
Lo ! now, within the deep ravine, 
A black impending cloud 
Infolds him in its shroud, 
And dark and darker glooms the scene. 
Through the thicket streaming, 
Lightnings now are gleaming ; 
Thunders rolling dread, 
Shake the mountain's head ; 
Nature's war 
Echoes far, 
O'er ether borne. 
That flash 
The ash 
Has scath'd and torn ! 



296 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PARTIS 

Now it rages ; 
Oaks of ages, 
Writhing in the furious blast, 
Wide their leafy honours cast ; 
Their gnarled arms do force to force oppose : 
Deep rooted in the crevic'd rock, 
The sturdy trunk sustains the shock, 
Like dauntless hero firm against assailing foes. 

III. EPODE. 

- O Thou who sits above these vapours dense, 
And rul'st the storm by thine omnipotence ! 
Making the collied cloud thy car, 
Coursing the winds, thou rid'st afar, 
Thy blessings to dispense. 
The early and the latter rain, 
Which fertilize the dusty plain, 

Thy bounteous goodness pours. 
Dumb be the atheist tongue abhorr'd ! 
All nature owns thee, sovereign Lord I 

And works thy gracious will; 
At thy command the tempest roars, 
At thy command is still. 
Thy mercy o'er this scene sublime presides; 
'Tis mercy forms the veil that hides 
The ardent solar beam ; 
While, from the volley'd breast of heaven, 
Transient gleams of dazzling light, 
Flashing on the balls of sight, 
Make darkness darker seem. 
Thou mov'st the quick and sulph'rous leven — 
The tempest-driven 
Cloud is riven ; 
And the thirsty mountain-side 
Drinks gladly of the gushing tide.' 
So breath'd young Edwin, when the summer shower 
From out that dark o'erchamb'ring cloud, 
With lightning flash and thunder loud, 
Burst in wild grandeur o'er his solitary bower. — G. Brown, 



THE END OF PART FOURTH. 



KEY 

TO THE 

EXAMPLES OF FALSE CONSTRUCTION, 

DESIGNED FOR ORAL EXERCISES, 

UNDEB 

THE RULES OF SYNTAX AND THE NOTES. 



%W [The examples of False Syntax here explained, should be corrected orally by 
the pupil, according to the formules given under the rules ; and the following correc- 
tions may afterwards be used as examples for parsing, if necessary.] 

UNDER RULE I. — ARTICLES. 

Under Note 1. — An or A. 

This is a "hard saying. 

An humble heart shall find favour. 

Passing from an earthly to a heavenly diadem. 

Few have the happiness of living with such a one, 

She evinced a uniform adherence to the truth. 

An hospital is an asylum for the sick. 

This is truly a wonderful invention. 

He is a younger man than we supposed. 

A humorsome child is never long pleased. 

A careless man is unfit for an hostler. 

Under Note 2. — Noun$ Connected. 

Avoid rude sports : an eye is soon lost, or a hone broken, 
As the drop of the bucket, and the dust of the balance. 
Not a word was uttered, nor a sign given. 
I despise not the doer, but the deed. 

Under Note 3. — Adjectives Connected. 



What is the difference between the old and the new method ? 

The sixth and the tenth have a close resemblance. 

Is Paris on the right hand ? or the left ? 

Does Peru join the Atlantic, or the Pacific ocean ? 

He was influenced both by a just and a generous principle. 

The book was read by the old and the youug. 

I have both the large and the small grammar. 

Are both the north and the south line measured ? 

Are the north line and the south both measured ? 

Are both the north and the south lines measured? 

Are both the north lines and the south measured ? 

Under Note 4.— Adjectives Connected. 

Is the north and south line measured ? 

Are the two north and south fines both measured 3 

A great and good man looks beyond time. 

13* 



298 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

They made but a weak and ineffectual resistance. 
The Allegany and Monongahela rivers form the Ohio. 
I rejoice that there is an other and better world. 
"Were God to raise up an other such man as Moses. 
The light and worthless kernels will float. 

Under Note 5.— Articles not Requisite. 

Cleon was an other sort of man. 
There is a species of animal called seal. 
Let us wait in patience and quietness. 
The contemplative mind delights in silence. 
Arithmetic is a branch of mathematics. 
You will never have an other such chance. 
I expected some such answer. 
And I persecuted this way unto death. 

Under Note 6.— Of Titles and Names. 

He is entitled to the appellation of gentleman. 

Cromwell assumed the title of Protector. 

Her father is honoured with the title of Earl. 

The chief magistrate is styled President. 

The highest title in the state is that of Governor. 

For oak, pine, and ash, were name3 of whole classes of objects. 



Note 7. — Of C&mparisons. 

He is a better writer than reader. 

He was an abler mathematician than linguist. 

I should rather have an orange than an apple. 

Under Note 8.— Nouns with Who or Which. 

The words (or, Those words) which are signs of complex ideas, are liable tob« 

misunderstood. 
The carriages which were formerly in use, were very clumsy. 
The place is not mentioned by the geographers who wrote at that time. 

Under Note 9. — Participial Nouns. 

Means are always necessary to the accomplishing of ends. 

By the seeing of the eye, and the hearing of the ear, learn wisdom. 

In the keeping of his commandments, there is great reward. 

For the revealing of a secret, there is no remedy. 

Have you no repugnance to the torturing of animals ? 

Under Note 10.— Participles, not Nouns* 

By breaking the law, you dishonour the lawgiver. 
An argument so weak* is not worth mentioning. 
In letting go our hope, we let all go. 
Avoid talking too much of your ancestors. 
The cuckoo keeps repeating her unvaried notes. 
Forbear boasting of what you can do. 

UNDER RULE II. — NOMINATIVES, 

He that is studious, will improve. 

They that seek wisdom, will be wise. 

She and /are of the same age. 

You are two or three years older than we* 

Are not John and thou cousins ? 

I can write as handsomely as thou. 

Nobody said so but he. 

Who dost thou think was there? 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. — APPOSITION. — ADJS. 299 

Who broke this slate ? I. 

We are alone ; here's none but thou and I. 

Them that honour me, I will honour ; and they that despise me, shall be 

lightly esteemed. — 1 Sam., ii, 30. 
fie who in that instance was deceived, is a man of sound judgement. 

UNDER EULE III. — APPOSITION. 

The book is a present from my brother Eichard, him that keeps the book- 
store. 

I am going to see my friends in the country, them that we met at the ferry. 

This dress was made by Catharine, the milliner, her that we saw at work. 

Dennis, the gardener, he that gave me the tulips, has promised me a piony. 
Eesolve me, why the cottager and king, 
Be whom sea-sever' d realms obey, and he 
Who steals his whole dominion from the waste, 
Eepelling winter blasts with mud and straw, 
Disquieted alike, draw sigh for sigh. — Young. 

UNDEE EULE IV. — ADJECTIVES. 

Under Note 1.— Agreement. 

Things of this sort are easily understood. 

Who broke those tongs ? 

Where did I drop these scissors I 

Bring out those oats. 

Extinguish those embers. 

I disregard these minutiae. 

That kind of injuries we need not fear. 

What was the height of that gallows which Haman erected? 

Under Note 2. — Fixed Numbers. 

We rode about ten miles an hour. 

'Tis for a thousand pounds. 

How deep is the water ? About bis. fathoms. 

The lot is twenty-five feet wide. 

I have bought eight loads of wood. 

Under Note 3. — Reciprocals. 

Two negatives, in English, destroy each other. — Lowth cor. 

That the heathens tolerated one an other, is allowed. — Fuller cor, 

David and Jonathan loved each other tenderly. _ 

Words are derived one from an other in various ways. Or better : Derivatvvt 

words axe. formed from their primitives in various ways. — Cooper cor. 
Teachers like to see their pupils polite to one an other. — Webster cor. 
The Graces always hold one an other by the hand. 

Under Note 4. — Of Degrees. 

He chose the last of these three. 

Trissyllables are often accented on th&frst syllable. 

Which are the two most remarkable isthmuses in the world ? 

Under Note 5. — Of Comparatives. 

The Scriptures are more valuable than any other writings. 

The Eussian empire is more extensive than any other government in the 

world . 
Israel loved Joseph more than all his other children, because he was the son 

of his old age. 

Under Note 6. — Of Superlatives, 
Of all ill habits idleness is the most incorrigible. 



300 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Eve was the fairest 'of women. 

Hope is the most constant of all the passions. 

Under Note 7. — Of Extra Comparisons. 

That opinion is too general (or common) to be easily corrected. 

Virtue confers the greatest (or highest) dignity upon man. 

How much better are ye than the fowls ! — Tr. of Luke cor. 

Do not thou hasten above the Most High. — Esdras cor. , 

This, this was the unkindest cut of all. — Enfield, p. 353. 

The waters are frozen sooner and harder. — Verstegan cor. 

A healthier (or more healthy) place cannot be found. 

The best and the wisest men often meet with discouragements* 

Under Note 8. — Adjectives Connected, 

He showed us an easier and more agreeable way. 
This was the plainest and most convincing argument. 
Some of the wisest and most moderate of the senators. 
This is an ancient and honourable fraternity. 
There vice shall meet a fatal and irrevocable doom. 

Under Note 9. — Adjectives Prefixed* 

He is an industrious young man. 

She has an elegant new house. 

The first two classes have read. 

The two oldest sons have removed to the westward. 

England had not seen an other such king. 

Under Note 10. — Of Adjtotlvesfor Adverbe* 

She reads well and writes neatly. 

He was extremely prodigal. 

They went, conformably to their engagement. 

He speaks very fluently, and reasons justly. 

The deepest streams run the most silently. 

These appear to be finished the most neatly. 

He was scarcely gone, when you arrived. 

lam exceedingly sorry to hear of your misfortunes. 

The work was uncommonly well executed. 

This is not so large a cargo as the last. 

Thou knowest how good a horse mine is. 

I cannot think so meanly of him. 

He acted much more wisely than the others. 

Under Note 11.— Of Them for Those. 

I bought those books at a very low price. 

Go and tell those boys to be still. 

I have several copies : thou art welcome to those two. 

"Which of those three men is the most useful? 

Under Note 12.— Of This and That, 

Hope is as strong an incentive to action, as fear : that is the anticipation of 

good, this of evil. 
The poor want some advantages which the rich enjoy ; but we should not 
therefore account these happy, and those miserable. 
Memory and forecast just returns engage, 
That pointing back to youth, this on to age. — Pope. 

Under Note 13.— Each, Every One, &c. 

Let each of them be heard in his turn. 

On the Lord's day, every one of us Christians keeps the sabbath. 

Is either of these men known ? 

No : neither of them has any connexions here. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. — PRONOUNS. 301 

Under Note 1A.—Any and None. 

Did any of the company stop to assist you ? 
Here are six ; but none of them will answer. 

Under Note 15. — Participial Adjectives, 
Some crimes are thought deserving of death. 
Rudeness of speech is very unbecoming to for in] a gentleman. 
To eat with unwashed hands, was disgusting to a Jew. 

Leave then thy joys, unsuiting to such age — or, 
Leave then thy joys, not suiting such an age, 
To a fresh comer, and resign the stage. 

UNDER RULE V. — PRONOUNS. 

Every one must judge of Ms own feelings. 

Can any person, on his entrance into the world, be fully secure that he shall 

not be deceived ? 
He cannot see one in prosperity, without envying him. 
I gave him oats, but he would not eat them. 
Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put it on Jacob. 
Take up the tongs, and put them in their place. 
Let each esteem others better than 



A person may make himself happy without riches. 

Every man should try to provide for himself. 

The mind of man should not be left without something on which to employ 
its energies. 

An idler is a watch that wants both hands, 

As useless if it goes, as when it stands. — Cowper. 

Under Note 1. — Of Pronouns Needless. 

Many words darken speech. 

These praises he then seemed inclined to retract. 

These people are all very ignorant. 

Asa's heart was perfect with the Lord. 

Who, instead of going about doing good, are perpetually intent upon doing 

mischief. 
"Whom ye delivered up, and denied in the presence of Pontius Pilate. 
"Whom, when they had washed her, they laid in an upper chamber. 
There are witnesses of the fact which I have mentioned. 
He is now sorry for what he said. 

The empress, approving these conditions, immediately ratified them. 
Though this incident appears improbable, yet I cannot doubt the author's 

veracity. 

Under Note 2. — Of Change in Number. 

Thou art my father's brother, else would I reprove thee — or, 
You are my father's brother, else would I reprove you. 
Your weakness is excusable, but your wickedness is not — or, 
Thy weakness is excusable, but thy wickedness is not. 
Now, my son, I forgive thee, and freely pardon thy fault — or, 
Now, my son, I forgive you, and freely pardon your fault. 

You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song, 
Till nobly rises emulous your own — or, _ 
Thou drawst the inspiring breath of ancient song, 
Till nobly rises emulous thy own. 

Under Note S.—Of Who and Which. 

This is the horse which my father imported. 
Those are the birds which we call gregarious. 
He has two brothers, one of whom I am acquainted with. 

26 



302 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"What was that creature which Job called leviathan ? 

Those who desire to be safe, should be careful to do that which is right. 

A butterfly, who thought himself an accomplished traveller, happened to 

light upon a bee-hive. 
There was a certain householder, who planted a vineyard. 

Under Note 4. — Nouns of Multitude. 

He instructed and fed the crowds that surrounded him. 

The court, which has great influence upon the public manners, ought to be 

very exemplary. 
The wild tribes that inhabit the wildnerness, contemplate the ocean with as* 

tonishment, and gaze upon the starry heavens with delight, 

Under Note 5. — Of Mere Names. 

Judas (which is now an other name for treachery) betrayed his master with 

a kiss. 
He alluded to Phalaris, — which is a name for all that is cruel. 

Under Note 6. — Of the Pronoun That, 

He was the first that entered. 

He was the drollest fellow that I ever saw. 

This is the same man that we saw before. 

"Who is she that comes clothed in a robe of green ? 

The wife and fortune that he gained, did not aid him. 

Men that are avaricious, never have enough. 

All that I have, is thine. 

Was it thou, or the wind, that shut the door ? 

It was not I that shut it. 

The babe that was in the cradle, appeared to be healthy. 

Under Note 7. — Relative Clauses Connected. 

He is a man that knows what belongs to good manners, and that will not do 

a dishonourable act. 
The friend who was here, and who entertained us so much, will never be 

able to visit us again. 
The curiosities which he has brought home, and which we shall have the 

pleasure of seeing, are said to be very rare. 

Under Note 8. — Relative and Preposition. 

Observe them in the order in which they stand. 
We proceeded immediately to the place to which we were directed. 
My companion remained a week in the state in which I left him. 
The way in which I do it, is this. 

Under Note 9. — Of Adverbs for Relatives. 

Remember the condition /row which thou art rescued. 
I know of no rule by which it may be done. 

He drew up a petition, in which he too freely represented his own merits. 
The hour is hastening, in which whatever praise or censure I have acquired, 
will be remembered with equal indifference. 

Under Note 10. — Repeat the Noun. 

Many will acknowledge the excellence of religion, who cannot tell wherein 
that excellence consists. 

Every difference of opinion is nota difference of principle. — Jeferson. Bet- 
ter : Not every difference of opinion is a difference of principle. 

Next to the knowledge of God, this Tcnowledge of ourselves seems most 
worthy of our endeavour. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. — PRONOUNS. 303 

Under Note 11. — Plate of the Relative. 
Thou, who hast thus condemned the act, art thyself the man that committed 

it. . 

Ther<> is in simplicity a certain majesty, which is far above the quaintness of 

wit. 
Thou, who art a party concerned, hast no right to judge. 
It is impossible for such men as those who are likely to get the appointment, 

ever to determine this question. 
There are, in the empire of China, millions of people, whose support is derived 

almost entirely from rice. 

Under Note 12.— Of What for That. 

I had no idea but that the story was true. 

The post-boy is not so weary but that he can whistle. 

He had no intimation but that the men were honest. 

Under Note 13. — Of Adjectives for Antecedents. 

Some men are too ignorant to be. humble ; and without humility there can 

be no docility. 
Judas declared him innocent ; but innocent he could not be, had he in any 

respect deceived the disciples. 
Be accurate in all you say or do ; for accuracy is important in all the concerns 

of life. 
Every law supposes the transgressor to be wicked ; and indeed he is so, if 

the law**is just. 

UNDER RULE VI. — PRONOUNS. 

In youth, the multitude eagerly pursue pleasure, as if it were their chief 

good. 
The council were not unanimous, and they separated without coming to any 

determination. 
The committee were divided in sentiment, and they referred the business to 

the general meeting. 
There happened to the army a very strange accident, which put them in great 

consternation. 
The enemy were not able to support the charge, and they dispersed and fled' 
The defendant's counsel had a difficult task imposed on them. 
The board of health publish their proceeedings. 
I saw all the species thus delivered from their sorrows. 

Under Note 1. — The Idea of Unity. 

I saw the whole species thus delivered from its sorrows. 
This court is famous for the justice of its decisions. 
The convention then resolved itself into a committee of the whole. 
The crowd was so great that the judges with difficulty made their way 
through it. 

UNDER RULE VII. — PRONOUNS. 

Your levity and heedlessness, if they continue, will prevent all substantial 

improvement. 
Poverty and obscurity will oppress him only who esteems them oppressive. 
Good sense and refined policy are obvious to few, because they cannot be 

discovered but by a train of reflection. 
Avoid haughtiness of behaviour, and affectation of manners : they imply a 

want of solid merit. 
If love and unity continue, they will make you partakers of one an other's 

joy. 
Suffer not jealousy and distrust to enter ; they will destroy, like a canker, 

every germ of friendship. 



304 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Hatred and animosity are inconsistent with Christian charity : guard, there- 
fore, against the slightest indulgence of them. 

Every man is entitled to liberty of conscience, and freedom of opinion, if he 
does not pervert them to the injury of others. 

UNDER RULE VIII. — PRONOUNS. 

Neither Sarah, Ann, nor Jane, has performed her task* 

One or the other must relinquish his claim. 

A man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which will move only aa 

it is moved. 
Rye or barley, when it is scorched, may supply the place of coffee. 
A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as read it in a 

description. 
Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life ; for it may 

be thy own lot. 

UNDER RULE IX. — VERBS. 

We were disappointed. 
She dares not oppose it. 
His pulse is too quick. 
Circumstances alter cases. 
He needs not trouble himself. 
Twenty-four pence are two shillings. 
On one side were beautiful meadows. 
He may pursue what studies he pleases. 
What has become of our cousins ? 
There were more impostors than one. 
What say his friends on this subject? 
Thou knowsb the urgency of the case. 
What avail good sentiments with a bad life ? 
Have those books been, sent to the school ? 
There are many occasions for the exercise of patience. 
What sounds has each of the vowels ? 
There was a great number of spectators. 
There is an abundance of treatises on this easy science. 
While, ever and anon, there fall 
Huge heaps of hoary moulde'r'd walls — or, 
While, ever and anon, there falls 
A heap of hoary moulder'd walls. 
He that trusts in the Lord, will never be without a friend. 
Errors that originate in ignorance, are generally excusable. 
Be ye not as the horse, or as the mule, which has no understanding. 
Not one of the authors who mention this incident, is entitled to credit. 
The man and woman that ivere present, being strangers to him, wondered at 

his conduct. 
There necessarily follow from thence these plain and unquestionable conse- 
quences. 

O thou, forever present in my way, 

Who all my motives and my toils sw 

thou, fore ver present in my way, 

Who dost my motives and my toils 



Under Note 1. — Nominative with Adjuncts. 

The derivation of these words is uncertain. 

Four years' interest was demanded. 

One added to nineteen, makes twenty. 

The increase of orphans renders the addition necessary. 

The road to virtue and happiness is open to all. 

The ship, with all her crew, was lost. 

A round of vain and foolish pursuits, delights some folks. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. — VERBS. 305 

Under Note 2. — Composite Subjects. 

To obtain the praise of men, was their only object. 
To steal and then deny it, is a double sin. 
To copy and claim the writings of others, is plagiarism. 
To live soberly, righteously, and piously, is required of all men. 
That it is our duty to promote peace and harmony among men, admits of n§ 
dispute. 

Under Note 3. — Verb between Nominatives. 

The reproofs of instruction are the way of life. 
A diphthong is two vowels joined in one syllable. 
So great an affliction to him were his wicked sons. 
What are the latitude and longitude of that island ? 
He churlishly said to me, ' Who are you?' 

Under Note 4.— Form Adapted to Style* 

1. Familiar Style. 
Was it thou that built that house ? 

That boy writes very elegantly. 

Could not thou write without blotting thy book ? 

Dost not thou think— or, Don't thou think, it will rain to-day? 

Does not — or, Don't your cousin intend to visit you? 

That boy has torn my book. 

Was it thou that spread the hay ? 

Was it James or thou that let him in? 

He dares not say a word. 

Thou stood in my way and hindered me. 

2. Solemn Style. 

The Lord hath prepared his throne in the heavens ; and his kingdom ruleth 

over all. — Psalms, ciii, 19. 
Thou answeredst them, Lord our God : thou wast a God that forgave* 

them, though thou tookest vengeance of their inventions. 
Then thou spakest in vision to thy Holy One, and saidst. — Psalms, lxxxix, 

19. 
So then, it is not of him that zoilleth, nor of him that runneth, but of God 

that showeth mercy. — Bom., ix, 16. 

Under Note 5. — The Nominative Expressed. 

New York, Fifthmonth 3d, 1823. 
Dear friend, 

/am sorry to hear of thy loss ; but /hope it may be retrieved. 1 
should be happy to render thee any assistance in my power. / shall call 
to see thee to-morrow morning. Accept assurances of my regard. 

A. B. 
New York, May 3d, P. M., 1823. 
Dear sir, 

/ have just received the kind note you favoured me with this 
morning ; and /cannot forbear to express my gratitude to you. On further 
information, /find / have not lost so much as /at first supposed ; and / be- 
lieve /shall still be able to meet all my engagements. / should, however, 
be happy to see you. Accept, dear sir, my most cordial thanks.. C. D. 
Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, 
And wilt thou never be to Heaven resign'd ? 

UNDER RULE X. — VERBS. 
The nobility were assured that he would not interpose. 

* Forgavest (as in Psalm xcix, 8,) appears to be wrong; because the relatiye that 
and its antecedent God are of the third person, and not of the second. 

26* 



306 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The committee have attended to their appointment. 

Mankind were not united by the bonds of civil society. 

The majority were disposed to adopt the measure. 

The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort make use of "wooden shoes. 

All the world are spectators of your conduct. 

Blessed are the people that know the joyful sound. 

Under Note 1. — The Idea of Unity. 

The church has no power to inflict corporal punishments. 

The fleet was seen sailing up the channel. 

The meeting has established several salutary regulations. 

The regiment consists of a thousand men. 

A detachment of two hundred men was immediately sent. 

Every auditory takes this in good part. 

In this business, the house of commons was of no weight. 

Is the senate considered as a separate body ? 

There is a flock of birds. 

No society is chargeable with the disapproved conduct of particular membersi 

UNDER RULE XL — VERBS. 

Temperance and exercise preserve health. 

Time and tide wait for no man. 

My love and affection towards thee remain unaltered. 

"Wealth, honour, and happiness, forsake the indolent. 

My-flesh and my heart fail. 

In all his works, there are sprightliness and vigour. 

Elizabeth's meekness and humility were extraordinary. 

In unity consist the security and welfare of every society. 

High pleasures and luxurious living beget satiety. 

Much do human pride and folly require correction. 

Our conversation and intercourse with the world are, in several respects, an 
education for vice. 

Occasional release from toil, and indulgence of ease, are what nature de- 
mands, and virtue allows. 

What generosity, and what humanity, were then displayed? 
What thou desir'st, 
And what thou fearest, alike destroy all hope. 

Under Note 1. — Affirmation with Negation, 

Wisdom, and not wealth, procures esteem. 

Prudence, and not pomp, is the basis of his fame. 

Not fear, but labour has overcome him. 

The decency, and not the abstinence, makes the difference. 

Not her beauty, but her talents attract attention. 

It is her talents, and not her beauty, that attract attention. 

It is her beauty, and not her talents, that attracts attention. 

Under Note 2. — As Well As, But, or Save. 

His constitution^ as well as his fortune, requires care. 
Their religion, as well as their manners, was ridiculed. 
Every one, but thou, had been legally discharged. 
The buyer, as well as the seller, renders himself liable. 
All songsters, save the hooting owl, were mute. 
None, bat thou, O mighty prince ! can avert the blow. 
Nothing, but frivolous amusements, pleases the indolent. 
Csesar, as well as Cicero, was admired for his eloquence. 

Under Note 3. — Fach, Every, or No. 

Each day, and each hour, brings its portion of duty. 
Every house, and even every cottage, was plundered. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. — VERBS. 307 

Every thought, every word, and every action, will he brought into judge- 
ment, whether it be good or evil. 
The time will come, when no oppressor, no unjust man, will be able to 
screen himself from punishment. 

No bandit fierce, no tyrant mad with pride, 
No cavern' d hermit, rests self-satisfied. — Pope. 

Under Note 4. — And Required. 

In this affair, perseverance and dexterity were requisite. 

Town and country are equally agreeable to me. 

Sobriety and humility lead to honour. 

The king, the lords, and the commons, compose the British parliament. 

The man and his whole family are dead. 

A small house and a trifling annuity are still granted him. 

Under Note 5. — Distinct Subject Phrases. 

To profess, and to possess, are very different things. 

To do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with God, are duties of 

universal obligation. 
To be round or square, to be solid or fluid, to be large or small, and to be 

moved swiftly or slowly, are all equally alien from the nature of thought. 

UNDER RULE XII. — VERBS. 

Neither imprudence, credulity, nor vanity, has ever been imputed to him. 

What the heart or the imagination dictates, flows readily. 

Neither authority nor analogy supports such an opinion. 

Either ability or inclination was wanting. 

Redundant grass or heath affords abundance to their cattle. 

The returns of kindness are sweet ; and there is neither honour, nor virtue, 

nor utility, in repelling them. 
The sense or drift of a proposition, often depends upon a single letter. 

Under Note 1. — Nominatives that Disagree. 

Neither he nor you were there. 
Either the boys or I was in fault. 
Neither he nor I intend to be present. 
Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved. 

"Whether one person or more were concerned in the business, does not yet 
appear. 

Under Note 2.— The Concord Completed. 

Are they, or am I, expected to be there ? 

Neither is he, nor am I, capable of it. 

Either he has been imprudent, or his associates have been vindictive. 

Neither were their riches, nor was their influence great. 

Under Note 3. — Place of the First Person. 

My father and /were riding out. 

The premiums were given to George and me. 

Jane and /are invited. 

They ought to invite my sister and me. 

We dreamed a dream in one night, he and I. 

Under Note 4. — Distinct Subject Phrases. 

To practise tale-bearing, or even to countenance it, is great injustice. 
To reveal secrets, or to betray one's friends, is contemptible perfidy. 



308 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 



UNDER RULE XIII.— VERBS. 

Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and go into the mountains, and seek 
that which is gone astray ? 

Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreat thee to forgive him ? 

If he understands the business, and attends to it, wherein is he deficient ? 

The day is approaching, and is hastening upon us, in which we must give an 
account of our stewardship. 

If thou dost not turn unto the Lord, hut dost forget him who remembered 
thee in thy distress, great will be thy condemnation— or, better : If thou 

i turn not unto the Lord, hut forget him who remembered thee in thy dis- 
tress, great will be thy condemnation. 

There are a few, who have kept their integrity to the Lord, and who prefer 
his truth to all other enjoyments. 

This report was current yesterday, and it agrees with what we heard before. 

Virtue is generally praised^ and it would be generally practised also, if men 
were wise. 

Under Note 1. — Preterits and Participles* 

He would have gone with us, if we had invited him. 
They have chosen the part of honour and virtue. 
He soon began to be weary of having nothing to do. 
Somebody has broken my slate. 
I saw him when he did it. 

Under Note 2. — Form Adapted to Sense. 

He had entered into the conspiracy. 

The American planters raise cotton and rice. 

The report is founded on truth. 

I entered the room and sat down. 

Go and lie down, my son. 

With such books, it will always be difficult to teach children to read. 

UNDER RULE XIV. — PARTICIPLES. 

Under Note 1. — Of Expunged. 

By observing truth, you will command respect. 

I could not, for my heart, forbear pitying him. 

I heard them discussing this subject. 

By consulting tne best authors, he became learned. 

Here are rules, by observing which, you may avoid error. 

Under Note 2. — Of Inserted. 
Their consent was necessary for the raising of any supplies. 
Thus the saving of a great nation devolved on a husbandman. 
It is an overvaluing of ourselves, to decide upon every thing. 
The teacher does not allow any calling of ill names. 
That burning of the capitol was a wanton outrage. 
May nothing hinder our receiving of so great a good. 
My admitting of the fact will not affect the argument. 
Cain's killing of his brother originated in envy. 

Under Note 3. — Expression Changed. 

Csesar carried off the treasures, which his opponent had neglected to tak* 

with him. 
It is dangerous to play with edge tools. 
I intend to return -in a few days. 

To suffer needlessly — or, Needless suffering is never a duty. 
Nor is it wise to complain. 
I well remember to have told you so — or, that I told you so. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. — ADVERBS. 309 

The doing of good — or. To do good, is a Christian's vocation. 
Piety is a constant endeavour to live to God. It is an earnest desire to do his 
will, and not our own. 

Under Note 4. — The Leading Word. 

There is no harm in women's knowing about these things. 
They did not give notice of the pupil's leaving. 
The sun, darting his beams through my window, awoke me. 
The maturity of the sago tree is known by the leaves' 1 being covered with t 
delicate white powder. 

Under Note 5. — Reference of Participles. 

Sailing up the river, you may see the whole town. 

Being conscious of guilt, men tremble at death — or, Consciousness of guIU 

renders death terrible. 
By yielding to temptation, we sacrifice our peace. 
In loving our enemies, we shed no man's blood. 
By teaching the young, we prepare them for usefulness. 

Under Note 6. — Participles, not Preterits* 

A nail well driven will support a great weight. 
See here a hundred sentences stolen from my work. 
I found the water entirely frozen, and the pitcher broken. 
Being forsaken by my friends, I had no other resource. 

Under Note 7. — Form of Participles. 



Till by barbarian deluges d>erj 

Like the lustre of diamonds set in gold. 

A beam ethereal, sullied and absorb 1 d. 

With powerless wings around them wrapped. 

Error learned from preaching, is held as sacred truth. 

UNDER RULE XV. — ADVERBS. 

Under Note 1. — The Placing of Adverbs. 

The work will never be completed. 

We should always prefer our duty to our pleasure. 

It is impossible to be continually at work. 

He behaved impertinently to his master. 

The heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion. 

He found her not only busy, but even pleased and happy. 

Under Note 2. — Adverbs for Adjectives. 

Give him an early and decisive answer. 

When a substantive is put absolute. 

Such expressions sound harsh. 

Such events are of rare (or infrequent) occurrence. 

Velvet feels very smooth. 

Under Note 3. — Of Here for Hither, dbe. 

Bring him hither to me. 
I shall go thither again in a few days. 
Whither are they all riding in so great haste ? 

Under Note 4. — Of From Hence, dta. 

Hence it appears that the statement is incorrect. 
Thence, arose the misunderstanding. 
Do you know whence it proceeds ? 



810 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Unde^Note 5.— Of 'the Adverb Row. 

You see that not many are required. 

I knew that they had heard of his misfortunes. 

He remarked, that time was valuable. 

Under Note 6.— Of the Adverb No. 

Know now, whether this is thy son's coat or not. 
"Whether he is in fault or not, I cannot tell. 
I will ascertain whether it is so or not. 

Under Note 7.— Of Double Negatives. 

I will by no means entertain a spy. 

Nobody ever invented or discovered any thing, in any way to be compared 

with this. 
Be honest, and take no shape or semblance of disguise. 
I did not like either his temper or his principles. 
Nothing ever can justify ingratitude. 

UNDER RULE XVI. — CONJUNCTIONS. 

Under Note 1. — Of Two Terms with One. 

He has made alterations in the work, and additions to it. 

He is more bold than his companion, but not so wise. 

Sincerity is as valuable as knowledge, and even more so. 

I always have been, and I always shall be, of this opinion. 

What 'is now kept secret, shall be hereafter displayed and seen in the cleares' 

light. 
We pervert the noble faculty of speech, when we use it to defame or to dis« 

quiet our neighbours. 
Be more anxious to acquire knowledge, than to show it. 
The court of chancery frequently mitigates and disarms the common law. 

Under Note 2.— Of Lest or But for That. 

We were apprehensive that some accident had happened. 

I do not deny that he has merit. 

Are you afraid that he will forget you ? 

These paths and bow'rs, doubt not that our joint hands 
Will keep from wilderness. 

Under Note 3. — Prefer Than. 

It was no other than his own father. 

Have you no further proof than this ? 

I expected something more than this. 

He no sooner retires than his heart burns with devotion. 

Such literary filching is nothing else than robbery. 

Under Note 4. — Of Correspondents. 

Neither despise nor oppose what you do not understand. 

He would neither do it himself nor let me do it. 

The majesty of good things is such, that the confines of them are reverend. 

Whether he intends to do so or not, I cannot tell. 

Send me such articles only, as are adapted to this market. 

So far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. 

No errors are so trivial as not to deserve correction. 

It will neither improve the mind, nor delight the fancy. 

The one is as deserving as the other. 

There is no condition so secure that it cannot admit of change. 

Do you think this is as good as that ? 

The relations are so obscure that they require much thought. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. — PREPOSITIONS. 311 

None is so fierce as to dare stir him up. 

There was no man so sanguine as not to apprehend some ill consequeaoe. 

I must be so candid as to own that I do not understand it. 

The book is not so well printed as it ought to be. 

As still he sat as those who wait, 

Till judgement speak the doom of fate. 

UNDER RULE XVII. — PREPOSITIONS. 

Under Note I. — Choice of Preposition*. 

She finds a difficulty in fixing her mind. 
This affair did not fall under his cognizance. 
He was accused of betraying his trust. 
There was no water, and he died of thirst. 
I have no occasion/or his services. 
You may safely confide m him. 
I entertain no prejudice against him. 
You may rely on what I tell you. 
Virtue and vice differ widely from each other. 
This remark is founded on truth. 
After many toils, we arrived at our journey's end. 
I will tell you a story very different/rom that. 
Their conduct is agreeable to their profession. 
Excessive pleasures pass from satiety into disgust. 
I turned in disgust from the spectacle. 
They are gone into the meadow. 
Let this be divided among the three, 
The shells were broken into pieces, 
The deception has passed with every one. 
They never quarrel with each other. 

TJirough every difficulty— or, Amidst all difficulties, he perserered. 
Let us go up stairs. 

I was in London, when this happened. 
We were detained at home, and disappointed of our walk. 
This originated in mistake. 

The Bridewell is situated on the west of the City-Hall, and it has no com- 
munication with the other buildings. 
I am disappointed in the work ; it is very inferior to what I expected. 

Under Note 2. — Omission of Prepositions. 

Be worthy of me, as I am worthy ofyov. 
They cannot but be unworthy of the care of others. 
Thou shalt have no portion on this side of the river. 
Sestos and Abydos were exactly opposite to each other. 
Ovid was banished/row Rome by his patron Augustus. 

UNDER RULE XIX. — POSSESSIVES. 
Under Note l.—The Possessive Form. 

Man's chief good is an upright mind. 

I will not destroy the city for ten's sake. 

Moseses rod was turned into a serpent. 

They are wolves in sheets' clothing. 

The tree is known by its fruit. 

The privilege is not theirs, any more than it is yours. 
Yet he was gentle as soft summer airs, 
Had grace for others' sins, but none for theirs. — Cowper. 



Under Note 2. — Possessives 
There is but little difference between the JEarthi's and Venus's diameter. 
This hat i» John's, or James's, 



812 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The store is opposite to Morris and Company's. 
This palace has been the grand Sultan Mahomet's. 
This was the Apostle Paul's advice. 
Were Cain's occupation and Abel's the same ? 
"Were Cain's and Abel's occupation the same ? 
"Were Gain and Abel's occupations the same? 
Were Cain's and Abel's parents the same ? 
Were Cain's parents and Abels the same ? 
Was Cain and Abel's father there ? 
Were Cain and Abel's parents there? 

Thy Maker's will has placed thee here, 
A Maker wise and good. 

Under Note 3.— Choice of Forms. 
The government of the world is not left to chance. 
He was heir to the son of Louis the Sixteenth. 
The throne we honour, is the people's choice. 
We met at the house of 'my brother's partner. 
An account of the proceedings of Alexander's court. 

Here is a copy of the Constitution of the Teachers' 1 Society in the city of New* 
York. 

Under Note A. — Nouns with Possessives Plural. 

Their health perhaps may be pretty well secured. 
We all have talents committed to our charge. 
For your sake forgave I it, in the sight of Christ. 
We are, for our part, well satisfied. 
The pious cheerfully submit to their lot. 
Fools think it not worth their while to be wise. 

Under Note 5. — Of Possessives with Participles. 

I rewarded the boy for studying so diligently. 
Have you a rule for thus parsing the participle ? 
He errs in giving the word a double construction. 
By offending others, we expose ourselves. 
They deserve our thanks for quickly relieving us. 

UNDER RULE XX. — OBJECTIVES. 

Tfiee only have I chosen. 

Whom shall we send on this errand ? 

My father allowed my brother and me to accompany him. 

Him that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 

Whom should I meet but my old friend ! 

He accosts whomever he meets. 

Whomsoever the court favours, is safe. 

Them that honour me, I will honour. 

Whom do you think I saw the other day ? 

Under Note 1. — An Object Required. 

The ambitious are always seeking to aggrandize themselves. 

1 nust premise three circumstances. 

- as society does not allow personal reflections. 

x (, alse accusation cannot diminish real merit. 

His servants ye are whom ye obey. 

Under Note 2. — Of False Transitims. 

Good keeping fattens the herd. 

We endeavoured to reconcile the parties. 

Being weary, he sat down. 

Go, fiee away into the land of Judah. 

The popular lords did not fail to enlarge on the subject. 



Key to false syntax. — same cases, etc. 813 

Under Note 3.— Passive Verbs. 

The benefit of their recantation was refused them. 
Temporal riches are not promised to believers. 
Several beautiful pictures were shown us. 
But, unfortunately, the favour was denied me. 
A high compliment was paid you. 
The question has never been asked me. 

UNDER RULE XXI. — SAME CASES. 

We thought it was thou. 

I would act the same part, if I were he. 

It could not have been she. 

It is not /, that he is angry with. 

They believed it to be me. 

It was thought to be he. 

If it had b3en she, she would have told us. 

We know it to be them. 

Who do you think it is ? 

Whom do you suppose it to be? 

We did not know who they were. 

Thou art he whom they described. 

Impossible ! it can't be I. 

Who did he think 3^0 u were ? 

Who say ye that I am ? 

UNDER RULE XXII. — OBJECTIVES. 

Let that remain a secret between you and me. 
I lent the book to some one, I know not [to] whom. 
Whom did he inquire for ? Thee, 
From him that i3 needy, turn not away. 
We are all accountable, each for his own acts. 
Does that boy know whom he is speaking to ? 
I bestow my favours on whomsoever I will. 

UNDER RULE XXIII. — INFINITIVES. 

Please to excuse my son's absence. 
Cause every man to go out from me. 
Forbid them to enter the garden. 
Do you not perceive it to move ? 
Allow others to discover your merit. 
He was seen to go in at that gate. 
Permit me to pass this way. 

UNDER RULE XXIV. — INFINITIVES. 

I felt a chilling sensation creep over me. 

I have heard him mention, the subject. 

Bid the boys come in immediately. 

I dare say he has not got home yet. 

Let no rash promise be made. 

We sometimes see bad men honoured. 

A good reader will make himself distinctly lieard. 

UNDER RULE XXV. — NOM. ABSOLUTE. 

/being young, they deceived me. 
They refusing to comply, 1 withdrew. 
Thou being present, he would not tell what he knew. 
The child is lost ; and /, whither shall I go ? 

14 



814 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 

happy we ! surrounded thus with blessings ! 
"Thou too ! Brutus, my son !" cried Csesar overcome. 

But he, the chieftain of them all, 

His sword hangs rusting on the -wall. — W. Scott, 

She quick relapsing to her former state, 
With boding fears approach the serving train. 

There all thy gifts and graces we display, 
Thou, only thou, directing all our way. — Pope. 

UNDER RULE XXVI. — SUBJUNCTIVES. 

First Clause — Subjunctive Present* 

He will maintain his cause, though he lose his estate. 
They will fine thee, unless thou offer an excuse. 

1 shall walk out in the afternoon, unless it rain. 
Let him take heed lest he fall. 

On condition that he come, I consent to stay. 

If he be but discreet, he will succeed. 

Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob. 

If thou cast me off, I shall be miserable. 

Send them to me, if thou please. 

"Watch the door of thy lips, lest thou utter folly. 



Second Clause. — Subjunctive 

If I were to write, he would not regard it. 

If thou, felt as I do, we should soon decide. 

Though thou shed thy blood in the cause, it would but prove thee sincerely 

a fool. 
If thou loved him, there would be more evidence of it. 
I believed, whatever were the issue, all would be well. 
If love ivere never feigned, it would appear to ^e scarce. 
There fell from his eyes, as it were scales. 
If he were an impostor, he must have been detected. 
Were death denied, all men would wish to die. 

that there were yet a day to redress thy wrongs ! 
Though thou wert huge as Atlas, thy efforts would be vain. 

Last Clause. — Indicative Mood. 

Though he seems to be artless, he has deceived us. 
If he thinks as he speaks, he may safely e trusted. 
Though this event is strange, it certainlj did happen. 
If thou lovest tranquillity of mind, seek it not abroad. 

If seasons of idleness are dangerous, what must a continued habit of it prove? 
Though he was a son, yet learned he obedience by the things which he 
suffered. 

1 knew thou wast not slow to hear. 

Under Note 1. — Words of Time. 

The work was finished last week. 

He has been out of employment this fortnight. 

This mode of expression was formerly in use. 

I shall be much obliged to him if he will attend to it. 

I will pay the vows which my lips uttered when I was in trouble. 

I have compassion on the multitude, because they have continued with me 
now three days. 

I thought, by the accent, that he was speaking to his child. 

And he that had been dead, sat up and began to speak. 

Thou hast borne, and hast had patience, and for my name's sake hast la- 
boured, and hast not fainted? 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX. — PROMISCUOUS. 315 

Ye will not come unto me that ye may have life — or, Ye would not come unto 

me that ye might have life. 
At the end of this quarter, I shall have been at school two years. 
We have done no more than it was oar duty to do. 

Under Rule 2. — Relative Tenses. 

We expected that he would arrive last night. 

Our friends intended to meet us. 

We hoped to see you. 

He would not have been allowed to enter. 

Under Note 3. — Permanent Propositions. 

The doctor affirmed, that fever always produces thirst. 
The ancients asserted, that virtue is its own reward. 

PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES CORRECTED. 

LESSON I. 

There is a spirit in man ; and the inspiration of the Almighty giveth him 
understanding. 

My people do not consider. 

I have never heard whom they invited. 

Then hasten thy return ; for, then, away, 
Nor lustre has the sun, nor joy the day. 

I am as well as when you were here. 

That elderly man, him that came in late, I supposed to he the superinten- 
dent. 

All the virtues of mankind are to he counted upon a few fingers ; but their 
follies and vices are innumerable. 

It must indeed be confessed, that a lampoon or a satire does not carry in it 
robbery or murder. 

There were more persons than one engaged in this affair. 

A man who lacks ceremony, has need of great merit. 

A wise man avoids the showing of any excellence in trifles. Better— for" 
tears to show — or, is careful not to show, &c. 

The first and most important female quality is sweetness of temper. 

We choose rather to lead than to follow. 

Ignorance is the mother of fear, as well as of admiration. 

He must fear many, whom many fear. 

Every one partakes of honour bestowed on the worthy. 

The king and the queen were not at all deceived. — [Note tth, Rult xi.] 

Were there no difference, there would be no choice. 

I would rather have been informed. 

Must thou return this evening? 

Life and death are in the power of the tongue. 

I saw a person that I took to be her. 

Let him be who he may, I shall not stop. 

This is certainly a useful invention. 

That such a spirit as thou does not understand me. 

' It is no more than justice,' quoth the farmer. 

LESSON II. 

Great improvements have teen made. 

What I have heard, is undoubtedly true. 

The nation is torn by feuds which threaten its ruin. 

The account of these transactions was incorrect. 

Godliness with contentment is great gain. 

The number of sufferers has not been ascertained. 

There is one or more of them yet in confinement. 



316 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

They have chosen the wisest part. 

He spent his whole lite in doing good. 

They scarcely know that temperance is a virtue. 

I am afraid that I have laboured in vain. 

Mischief on, itself doth back recoil. 

This construction sounds rather harsh. 

What is the cause of the leaves' curling ? 

Was it thou, that made the noise ? 

Let thy flock clothe the naked, 

Wisdom and knowledge are granted unto thee. 

His conduct was surprisingly strange. 

This woman taught my brother and me to read. 

Let your promises be such as you can perform. 

We shall sell them in the state in which they now are. 

We may, however, add this observation. 

This came into fashion when I was young. 

I did not use the leaves, but the root of the plant. 

We have continually used every means in our power. 

Pass ye away, ye inhabitants of Saphir — or, Pass away, thou inhabitant of 

Saphir. 
Give every syllable and every letter its proper sound. 

LESSON III. 

To know exactly how much mischief may be ventured upon with impunity. 

is knowledge enough for some folks. 
Every leaf and every twig teems with life. 
1 rejoiced at this intelligence. 
At this stage of advancement, the pupil finds little difficulty in understanding 

the passive and the neuter verbs. 
I was afraid tha-t I should lose the parcel. 
Which of all these patterns is the prettiest ? 
They that [or who] despise instruction, shall not be wise. 
Both thou and thy advisers have mistaken your interest. 
An idle soul shall suffer hunger. 
The lips of knowle dge are a precious jewel. 
My cousin and /are requested to attend. 
I can only say, that such is my belief. 
This is different from the conscience'' being made to feel. 
Here is ground for their leaving of the world with peace — or, (better,) Here 

is ofround/or leaving the world with peace. 
Whither are you all running so fast ? 
•Man is the noblest work of creation. 
Of aU crimes willful murder is the most atrocious. 
The tribes that I visited, are partially civilized. 
Hence I conclude, they are in error. 
The girls' books are neater than the toys'. 
I intended to transcribe it. 
Shall a character made up of the very worst passions, pass under the name 

of gentleman t 
Ehoda ran in, and told that Peter stood before the gate. 
What are latitude and longitude ? 
Cicero was more eloquent than any other Eoman — or, Cicero was the most 

eloquent of the Eomans. 
Who dares apologize for Pizarro ? — which is but another name for rapacity. 

LESSON IV. 

Tell me whether you will do it or not. 
After the straitest [or strictest] sect, I lived a Pharisee. 
We have no more than five loaves and two fishes. 
I know not who it was that did it. 



KEY TO FALSE SYNTAX.— PROMISCUOUS. 317 

Doubt not, little though there be, 
That I'll cast a crumb to thee. 

This rule is the "best that can be given. 

I have never seen any other way. 

These are poor amends for the men and treasures that we have lost. 

Dost thou know those boys ? 

This is a part of the estate of my uncle's father. 

Many people never learn to speak cm^rectly. 

Some people are rash, and others timid : these apprehend too much, those too 

little. 
Is it lawful for us to give tribute to Csesar or not ? 
It was not worth while to preserve any permanent enmity. 
I no sooner saw my face in it, than I was startled at the shortness of it. 
Every person is answerable for his own conduct. 
They are men that scorn a mean action, and that will exert themselves to 

serve you. 
1 do not recollect ever to have paid it — the paying of it — the payment of "it — 

or, that 1 ever paid it. 
The stoics taught that all crimes are equal. 
Every one of these theories is now exploded. 
Any of these four will answer. 
There is no situation in which he would be happy. 
The boy that you thought so clever, has been detected in stealing, 
1 will meet thee there, if thou please. 
He is not so sick, but that he can laugh. 
These clothes do not fit me. 
The audience were all very attentive. 

Wert thou some star, which from the ruin'd roof 
Of shak'd Olympus by mischance did fall.' 

LESSON V. 

"Was the master, or were many of the scholars, in the room? 

~H.\s father and mother's consent was asked. 

Wlio is he supposed to be ? 

He is a venerable old man. 

It was then my purpose to visit Sicily. 

It is only to the learner, and him that is in doubt, that this assistance is rec- 
ommended. 

There is not the least hope of his recovery. 

Anger and impatience are always unreasonable. 

In his letters, there is not only correctness, but elegance. 

Opportunity to do good is the highest preferment that a noble mind desires. 

The year in ivhich he died is not mentioned. 

Had I known it, I should not have gone. 

"Was it thou, that spoke tome' 

The house is pleasantly situated. 

He did it as privately as he possibly could. 

To subdue our passions — The subduing of our passions — The subjugation of 
our passior" — or, That we subdue our passions, is the noblest of conquests, 

James is more diligent than thou. 

"Words interwoven with sighs found out their way. 

He appears to be excessively diffident. 

The number of our days is with thee. 

As a father pitieth his children, so the Lord pitieth them that fear him. 

The circumstances of this case, are different. 

Well for us, if some other such men should rise ! 

A man that is young in years, may be old in hours, if he lose no time. 

The chief captain, fearing thatY&ul would be pulled into pieces fo/them, com- 
manded the soldiers to go down, and to take mm by force from among 
them. 

21* 



318 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR'. 

Nay, weep not, gentle Eros ; there are left us 
Ourselves to end ourselves. 

CORRECTIONS UNDER THE GENERAL RULE. 

Are there, then, more true religions than one ? 

The laws of Lycurgus but substituted insensibility for enjoyment. 

Raiu is seldom or never seen at Lima. 

The young bird raising its open mouth for food, exhibits a natural indication 

of corporeal want. 
There is much truth in AschavrCs observation. 

Adopting the doctrine in which he had been taught — or, Adopting the doc- 
trine which had been t-aught him. 
This library contained more than five hundred thousand volumes. 
The Coptic alphabet was one of the latest that were formed. 
There are many evidences of men s proneness to vice. 
To perceive nothing, and not to perceive, are the same — or, To perceive 

nothing, is the same as not to perceive. 
The king of France or of England, was to be the umpire. 
He may be said to have saved the life of a citizen ; and, consequently, he is 

entitled [or, to be entitled'] to the reward. 
The men had made inquiry for Simon's house, and were standing before the 

gate. 
Give no more trouble than you cannot possibly help. 

That the art of printing was then unknown, was a circumstance in some re- 
spects favourable to the freedom of the pen. 
A.n other passion which the present age is apt to run into, is a desire to 

make children learn all things. 
It requires few talents to which most men are not born, or which, at least, 

they may not acquire. 
Nor was Philip wanting in his endeavours to corrupt Demosthenes, as he 

had corrupted most of the leadiug men in Greece. 
The Greeks, fearing to be surrounded, wheeled about and halted, with the 

river behind them. 
Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying of our wants ; and 
riches, upon the enjoying of our superfluities. 

That brother should not war with brother, 
Nor one despise and grieve an other. 
Such is the refuge of our youth and age ; 
At first from hope, at last from vacancy — or, 
Such is the refuge of our youth and age ; 
Of that from hope, of this from vacancy. 
Triumphant Sylla! couldst thou then divine, 
By aught but Romans Rome should thus be laid i 



B*D 07 THE KEY TO THE ORAL EXERCISES. 



APPENDIX I. 

(ORTHOGRAPHY.) 

OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTEES. 

In the first chapter of Part I, the powers of the letters, or the elementary 
sounds of the English language, were duly enumerated and explained ; for 
these, as well as the letters themselves, are few, and may be fully stated in 
few words : but, since we often express the same sound in many different 
ways, and also, in some instances, give to the same letter several different 
Bounds, — or, it maybe, no sound at all, — any adequate account of the powers 
of the letters considered severally according to usage, — that is, of the sound 
or sounds of each letter, with its mute positions, as these occur in practice, 
—must, it was thought, descend to a minuteness of detail not desirable in 
the first chapter of Orthography. For this reason, the following particulars 
have been reserved to be given here as an Appendix, pertaining to the First 
Part of this English Grammar. 

The terms long and short, which are often used to denote certain vowel 
sounds, being also used, with a different import, to distinguish the quantity 
of syllables, are frequently misunderstood : for which reason, we have often 
substituted for them the terms open, and close, — the former, to denote the 
Bound usually given to a vowel when it forms or- ends an accented syllable ; 
as, ba, be, bi, bo, bu, by, — the latter, to denote the sound which the vowel 
commonly takes when closed by a consonant; as, ab, eb, ib, ob, ub. 

I. OF THE LETTER A. 

The vowel A has, four* sounds properly its own: — 

1. The English, open, or long a ; as in fame, favour, efficacious. 

2. The French, close, or short a ; as in bat, banner, balance. 

3. The Italian, or middle a; as in far, father, aha, comma, scoria, sofa. 

4. The Dutch, Old-Saxon, or broad a; as in wall, warm, water. 

DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH A. 

The only proper diphthong in which a is put first, is the word ay, meaning 
yes ; in which a has its middle sound, and y that of open e. 

Aa, when pronounced as an improper diphthong, takes the sound of close 
a; as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac. 

jE, a Latin improper diphthong, very common also in Anglo-Saxon, gen- 
erally has the sound of open or long e ; as in Caisar, oznigma,piean ; sometimes 
that of close or short e ; as in aphofresis, diceresis, et c&iera-. Some authors re- 
ject the a, and write Cesar, enigma, &c. 

Ai, an improper diphthong, generally has the sound of open or long a ; as 
in vail, sail, vain. In a final unaccented syllable, it sometimes preserves the 
first sound of a, as in chilblain, mortmain ; but oftener takes the sound of 
close or short i; as in certain, curtain, mountain, villain : in said, saith, again, 
and against, that of close e; and in the name Britain, that of close u. 

Ao, an improper diphthong, occurs in the word gaol; now frequently 
written, as it is pronounced, jail ; and in the adjective extraordinary, and its 
derivatives, in which, according to Walker, the a is silent. 



* Some writers distinguish from the first of these sounds the grave sound of a% 
heard in care, fair, there, &c. But Walker teaches no difference. 



820 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Au, an improper diphthong, is generally sounded like broad a; as hi 
cause, caught. Before n and an other consonant, it has the sound of middle 
a ; as in aunt, flaunt, launch, laundry. Gauge is pronounced gage. 

Aw, an improper diphthong, is always sounded like broad a; as in draw, 
drawn, drawl. 

Ay, an improper diphthong, like ax, has the sound of open or long a; aa in 
day, pay, delay : in sayst and says, that of close e. 

TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH A. 

Awe is sounded au, like broad a. Aye, an adverb signifying always, haa 
the sound of open a only, being different, both in sound and spelling, from 
the adverb ay, yes, with which it is often carelessly confounded. 

II. OF THE LETTER B. 

The consonant B has but one sound ; as in boy, robber, cub. 

B is silent before t or after m in the same syllable ; as in debt, debtor, doubt, 
dumb, lamb, climb, tomb. It is heard in subtile, fine, but not in subtle, cun- 
ning. 

III. OF THE LETTER C. 

The consonant Chas two sounds; the one hard, like that of 7c, the other 
soft, or rather hissing, like that of s. 

G, before a, o, u, I, r, t, or when it ends a syllable, is generally hard like k ; 
as in can, come, curb, clay, crab, act, action, accent, flaccid. 

G before e, i, or y, is always soft like s ; as in cent, civil, decency, acid. 

In a few words c takes the flat sound of s, like that of z; as in discern, 
suffice, sacrifice, sice. 

G before ea, ia, ie, io, or eou, when the accent precedes, sounds like sh ; as 
in ocean, special, species, gracious, cetaceous. 

Cis silent in czar, czarina, victuals, indict, muscle, corpuscle. 

Gh is generally sounded like tch ; as in church, chance, child. But in words 
derived from the learned languages, it has the sound of k : as in character, 
scheme, catechise, chorus, chyle, patriarch, drachma, magna charta: except in 
chart, charter, charity. Gh, in words derived from the French, takes the 
Bound of sh ; as in chaise, machine. 

Arch, before a vowel, is pronounced ark; as in archives, archangel, archi- 
pelago: except in arched,^ archer, archery, archenemy. Before a consonant, it 
is pronounced artchj as in archbishop, archduke. 

Gli is silent in schism, yatch, drachm; unsettled in schedule. 

IV. OF THE LETTER D. 

The general sound of the consonant D, is heard in dog, eddy, did. 

J), in the termination ed, preceded by a sharp consonant, takes the sound 
of t, when the e is suppressed : as in faced, stuffed, cracked, tripped, passed ; 
pronounced, faste, stuft, cract, tript, past. 

D before ia, ie, io, or eou, when the accent precedes, generally sounds like 
jj as in Indian, soldier, tedious, hideous. So in verdure, arduous, education. 

V. OF THE LETTER E. 

The vowel .ZThas three sounds properly its own : — 

1. The open or long ; as in me, mere, menial, melodious. 

2. The close or short ; as in men, merry, ebony. 

3. The obscure or faint; as in open, garden, shovel, able. This third sound 
is scarcely perceptible, and is barely sufficient to articulate the consonant 
and form a syllable. 

E final is mute, and belongs to the syllable formed by the preceding vowel 



APPENDIX I.— (ORTHOGRAPHY.)— LETTERS. 321 

or diphthong ; as in age, eve, ice, ore. Except— 1. In the words, be, Tie, me, w<\ 
she, and the, in which it has the open sound. 2. In Greek and Latin words, 
in which it has its open sound, and forms a distinct syllable ; as in Penelope, 
Pasiphae, Gyanee, Gargaphie, Arsinoe, apostrophe, catastrophe, simile, extem- 
pore, epitome.^ 3. In the terminations ere, gre, tre, in which it has the sound 
of close u ; as in acre, meagre, centre. 

Mute e, after a single consonant, or after st or th, generally preserves the 
open or long sound of the preceding vowel ; as in cane, here, pine, cone, tune, 
thyme, baste, clothe ; except in syllables unaccented ; as the last of genuine ; 
aud in a few monosyllables ; as bade, are, were, gone, shone, one, done, give, 
live, shove, love. 

DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH E. 

^before an other vowel, in general, either forms with it an improper diph- 
thong, or else belongs to a separate syllable. 

Pa, an improper diphthong, mostly sounds like open e ; as in ear, fear, tea: 
frequently, like close e ; as in earl, head, health: sometimes, like open a ; as in 
steak, bear, forswear: rarely, like middle a ; as in heart, hearth, hearken. Pa 
unaccented, sounds like close u; as hi vengeance, pageant. 

Pe, an improper diphthong, has the sound of open e • as in eel, sheep, tree. 
The contractions e'er and ne'er., are pronounced air and nair. 

Pi, an improper diphthong, mostly sounds like open a; as in reign, veil: 
frequently, like open e; as in deceit, either, neither, seize: sometimes, like open 
i; as in height, sleiqht: often, in unaccented syllables, like close i; as in 
foreign, forfeit, surfeit, sovereiqn : rarely, like close e ; as in heifer, nonpareil. 

Po, an improper diphthong, m people sounds like opene; in feoff, feoffment, 
leopard, jeopardy, like close e ; in yeoman, like open o ; in George] 'georgic, like 
close oj in dungeon, puncheon, sturgeon, &c, like close u. Feod, feodal, feoda- 
tory, are now written as they are pronounced, feud, feudal, feudatory . 

Pu and ew have the diphthongal sound of open u ; as in feud, deuce ; jew, 
dew, few, new. These diphthongs, when initial, sound like yu. Nouns be- 
ginning with this sound, require the article a, and not an, before them ; as, 
A Furopean, a ewer. After r or rh, eu and ew are commonly sounded like 
oo ; as in drew, grew, screw, rheumatism. 

In sew and Shrewsbury, ew sounds like open o. Shew and strew are prop- 
erly spelled, as they are most commonly pronounced, show, strow. 

Py, accented, has the sound of open a • as in bey, prey, survey : unaccented, 
it has the sound of open e ; as in alley, valley, money. Key and ley are pro- 
nounced, Tcee, lee. 

TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH E. 

Pau, a French triphthong, sounds like open o; as in beau, flambeau, port- 
manteau, bureau: except in beauty, and its compounds, in which it is pro- 
nounced like open u. 

Pou is a combination of vowels sometimes heard in one syllable, especially 
after c or g ; as in crus-ta-ceous, gorgeous. Walker, in his Rhyming Diction- 
ary, gives one hundred and twenty words ending in eous, in all of which he 
separates these vowels ; as in extra-ne-ous. And why, in his Pronouncing 
Dictionary, he gave us several such anomalies as fa-ba-ce-oi* ?in four syllables, 
and her-ba-ceous in three, it is not easy to tell. The best ruieis this : after c 
or q, unite these vowels ; after the other consonants, separate them. 

Pwe is a triphthong having the sound of yu. The vulgar pronunciation 
yoe should be carefully avoided. 

Pye is an improper triphthong, pronounced like open i. 

VI. OF THE LETTER F. 

The consonant Fh&s one unvaried sound, which is heard in fan, effort, 
staff: except of, which, when simple, is pronounced ov. 

14* 



822 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 

VII. OF THE LETTER G. 

The consonant G has two sounds ; the one hard, guttural, and peculiar to 
this letter ; the other soft, like that of/. 

G before a, o, u, I, r, or at the end of a word, is hard ; as in game, gone, 
gull, glory, grace, log, bog. 

G before e, i, or y, is soft; as in gem, ginger, elegy. Except— 1. In get, 
give, gewgaw, finger, and a few other words. 2. When a syllable is added to 
& word ending in g: as, long, longer ; fog, fogay. 

G is silent before m or n in the same syllable; as in phlegm, apothegm, 
gnaw, resign. 

G, when silent, usually lengthens the preceding vowel ; as in resign, im- 
pugn, impregn. 

Gh at the beginning of a word has the sound of g hard ; as in ghost, 
ghostly, ghastly : in other situations, it is generally silent ; as in high, mighty, 
plough, bough, through. 

Gh final sometimes sounds like/; as in laugh, rough, tough : and some- 
times, like a hard; as in burgh. In hough, lough, shough, it sounds like k; 
thus, Jiock, lock, shock. 

VIII. OF THE LETTER H. 

The sound of the consonant H, (though articulate and audible when prop- 
erly uttered,) is little more than an aspirate breathing. It is heard in hat, 
hit, hot, hut, adhere. 

H at the beginning of words is always sounded; except in heir, herb, 
"honest, honour, hospital, hostler, hour, humble, humour, and their compounds. 

iZ after r, is always silent; as rheum, rhetoric. 

ZTfinal, preceded by a vowel in the same syllable, is always silent ; as in 
ah, Sarah, Mneoeh. 

IX. OF THE LETTER I. 

The vowel /has three sounds, each perhaps properly its own: — 

1. The open or long ; as in life, fine, time, find, bind, child, mild, wild, pint. 
This is a diphthongal sound, and is equivalent to the sound of middle a and 
that of open, e quickly united. 

2. The close or short ; as in ink, think, sinking. 

3. The feeble ; as in divest, doctrinal, diversity. This sound is equivalent 
to that of open, e uttered feebly, /generally has this sound when it occurs 
at the end of an unaccented syllable : except at the end of Latin word?, 
where it is open or long ; as in literati. In some words, (principally from 
other modern languages,) i has the full sound of open e, under the accent ; as 
in Porto Rico, machine, magazine, antique, shire. 

Accented i followed by a vowel, has its open sound ; and the vowels be- 
long to separate syllables • as in pliant, diet, satiety, violet, pious. 

Unaccented i followed by a vowel, has its feeble sound; as in expatiate^ 
obedient, various, abstemious. 

DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING- WITH I. 

/ in the situation last described, readily coalesces with the vowel which 
follows, and is often sunk into the same syllable, forming a proper diph- 
thong ; as in fustian, quotient, question. The terminations cion, sion, and 
Hon, are generally pronounced shun' cious and tious are pronounced shus. 

le is commonly an improper diphthong. le final has the sound of open i; 
n,s in die, lie, pie, tie. Ie medial generally has the sound of open e; as in 
grief, thief, grenadier. In friend and its compounds, it takes the sound of 
close e. 

TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH I. 

The triphthongs ieu and iew, sound like open icf as in lieu, adieu, view, re- 

vietv. 



APPENDIX I.— (ORTHOGRAPHY.)— LETTERS. 323 

The three vowels iou, in the termination wvs often ^11 into one » syllable 
and form a triphthong. There are two hundred and forty-five words of this 
endin^TandmSre tnan two hundred derivatives from them. Walker has 
sever! puzzling inconsistencies in their pronunciation ; such ^ fas-Ud-v-om 
inlper^TZ, con-tagi-ous and sac-ri-le-qwus. After c g, t, or z these 
vowels should coalesce ; as in gra-cious, re-li-gtous vex-a-twus, ?>™*™*> 
and aboul two hundred other words. After the other consonants let them 
torn two syllables ; (except when there is a syndesis in poetry;) as in du- 
li-ous, o-di-ous } va-rirous, en-vv-ous. 

X. OF THE LETTER J. 

The consonant ^always has the sound of soft g, or of dzh; as mjoy 3 jewel* 
except in hallelujah, better written as it is pronounced, halleluiah. 

XI. OF THE LETTER K. 

The consonant K has the sound of chard; and occurs where c would have 
its soft sound : as in keep, hind, smoky. ' - ' , . 

Tbefore n s silent ; as in Lave, %now, knuckle. It is never doubled in 
sirrmle English words but two Kays may come together in certain com- 
S^ot in the separate syllables of some Hebrew names • as, brickUln, 
JStKAkklt ilkki, Elalkuk. C before it doubles the sound, and 
shortens the preceding vowel ; as in cockle, wic/eea. 

XII. OF THE LETTER L. 

The consonant L has a soft liquid sound ; as in line, lily, ™tt,f° 11 ™- 
z£ Bometimes silent; as in alms, almond, calf, chalk, could, would, should. 

XIII. OF THE LETTER M. 

The consonant M has but one sound ; as in map, murmur, mammon. M 
before ^t the beginning of a word is silent ; as in Mnason, Mnemosyne, 
mnemonics. Comptroller is pronounced controller. 

XIV. OF THE LETTER N. 

ThP consonant ifhas two sounds : the pure ; as in nun, banner, cannon ; 
and the SnSn? Bound of ng ; as in think, mangle, conquer congress, singvng 
ZinklL T g Thf latter sound should be carefully preserved in all words end- 
ing in inq ; and in such others as require it. 

5v^Jpreeeded by m, is silent; as m hymn, solemn. 

XV. OF THE LETTER O. 

The vowel has three sounds properly its own :— 

1 The open or long ; as in no, note, opiate opacity, domain. 

2 The close or short ; as in not, nor, torrid, dollar. 

*; as in matn^person. One is pronounced wun ; and once, wunce. 
DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH O. 
Oa an improper diphthong, has the sound of openo ; as in boat, coal, roach: 
except hi b?vad\n& groat, which have the sound of broad a. 



824 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Oe, an improper diphthong, when final, has the sound of open o; as in 
doe, foe, throe: except in canoe, shoe, pronounced canoo, shoo. 03, a Latin 
diphthong, generally sounds like open e ; as in Antoeci, foetus : sometimes, 
like close e ; as m foetid. Some authors reject the o, and write fetid, &c. 

01 is generally a proper diphthong, uniting the sound of close o or broad a, 
and that of open e ; as in boil, coil, soil, rejoice. But the vowels sometimes 
"belong to separate syllables : as in stoic. Oi unaccented, sometimes has the 
sound of close i ; as in avoirdupois, connoisseur, tortoise. Choir is now fre- 
quently written as it is pronounced, quire. 

00. an improper diphthong, generally has the slender sound of o ; as in 
coo, too, woo, fool, room. It has a shorter sound in foot, good, wood, stood, 
wool ; that of close u, in blood and flood • and that of open o, in door and floor. 

On is generally a proper diphthong, uniting the sound of close o, and that 
of u sounded as slender o or oo ; cs in bound found sound, ounce, thou. 
Ou is also an improper diphthong ; and as' such, it has six sounds: — 

1. That of close u ; as in rough, tough, young, flourish. 

2. That of broad a; as in ought, bought, thought. 

8. That oiopen o; as in court, dough, four, though. 

4. That of close o ; only in cough, trough, lough, shough. 

5. That oi slender o or oo; as in soup, you, through. 

C. That of oo, shortened ; only in would, could, should. 
Ow generally sounds like the proper diphthong ou ; as in brown, dowry, 
now, shower: but it often has the sound of open, o; as in know, show, stow. 
Oy is sounded like oi ; as in joy, toy. 

TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH O. 

Oeu is a French triphthong occurring in the word manoeuvre, which is pro- 
nounced in English man-oo-vur. Owe is an improper triphthong, in which 
the o only is heard, and with its long open sound. 

XVI. OF THE LETTER P. 

The consonant P has hut one sound ; which is heard in pen, sup, supper. 
It is sometimes silent ; as in psalm, receipt, corps. 

Ph generally sounds like/ ; as in philosophy \ In. Stephen and nephew, ph 
has the sound' of v. The h after p, is silent in diphthong, triphthong, naphtha, 
ophthalmic; and both the p and the h are silent in apophthegm, phthisis, 
phthisical. From the last three words, ph is sometimes dropped. 

XVII. OF THE LETTER Q. 

The consonant Q has the sound of 1c, and is always followed by the vowel 
ti, which, in words purely English, is sounded like w ; as in queen,, quarter, 
request. In some words of French origin, the u is silent ; as in coquet, liquor, 

burlesque. 

XVIII. OF THE LETTER R. 

The consonant B, at the beginning of -words, has a rough sound ; as in 
rose, roam; in other situations, a smoother one ; as in proud, harrow, barber. 

XIX. OF THE LETTER S. 

The consonant S has a sharp, hissing sound ; as in sad, sister, thus : and a 
flat sound, like that of z ; as in rose, dismal. 

S, at the beginning of words, or after any of the sharp consonants, is al- 
ways sharp ; as in see, steps, cliffs, sits, stocks, smiths. 

S, after any of the flat mutes, or at the end of words when not preceded 
by a sharp consonant, is generally flat ; as in eyes, trees, beds, bags, calves. £d 
is generally sharp. 



APPENDIX I.: — (ORTHOGRAPHY.) — LETTERS. 825 

S, in the termination sion, takes the sound of sh, after a consonant; as in 
aspersion, session : and that of zh, after a vowel ; as in invasion, elision. 
S i3 silent in isle, island, aisle, demesne, viscount. 

XX. OF THE LETTER T. 

The general sound of the consonant T, is heard in time, letter, set, 

T, immediately after the accent, takes the sound oitch, before u, and gen- 
erally also before eou : as in nature, feature, virtue, righteous, courteous : when 
s or x precedes, it takes this sound before ia or io ; as in fustian, bastion, 
mixtion,. But the general sound of t after the accent, when followed by i and 
an other vowel, is that of sh; as in creation, patient, cautious. 

Tis sometimes silent; as in often, rustle, whistle. 

TJi represents an elementary sound. It is either sharp, as in thing, ethical, 
ihinketh ; or flat, as in this, whither, thither. 

Th initial is sharp ; as in thank: except in than, that, the, thee, their, them, 
then, thence, there, these, they, thine, this, thither, those, thou, thus, thy, and their 
compounds. 

Th final is also sharp ; as in south: except in beneath, booth, with, and sev- 
eral verbs in th, which are frequently (and more properly) written with final 
e ; as in soothe, smoothe, bequeathe. 

Th medial is sharp, when preceded or followed by a consonant; as in 
swarthy, athwart : except in brethren, burthen, farther, farthing, murther, 
northern, worthy. 

Th- between two vowels, is generally flat in words purely English; as in 
gather, neither, whither : and sharp in words from the learned languages ; as 
in atheist, ether, method. 

Th in Thames, Thomas, thyme, asthma, phthisic, and their compounds, is 
pronounced like t. 

XXI. OF THE LETTER U. 

The vowel U has three sounds properly its own : — 

1. The open, long, or diphthongal ; as in tube, cubic, juvenile. 

2. The close or short ; as in tub,^ butter, justice. 

3. The middle ; as in pull, pulpit, artful. 

U forming a syllable by itself, is nearly equivalent in sound to you, and 
requires the article a, and not an, before it ; as, a union. 

Bury and busy are pronounced berry, bizzy. Their compounds are similar. 

After ;• or rh, open u, and the diphthongs ue and ui, take the sound of oo; 
as in rude, rhubarb, rue, rueful, fruit, fruitful. 

DIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH IT. 

U, in the proper diphthongs ua, ue, ui, no, uy, has the sound of w, or oo 
feeble ; as in persuade, query, quell, quiet, languid, quote, obloquy. 

Ua, an improper diphthong, has the sound — 1. of middle a ; as in guard, 
guardian : 2. of close a; as in guarantee, piquant : 3. of obscure e; os> hi vic- 
tuals and it3 compounds : 4. of open u; as in mantuamaher. 

Ue, an improper diphthong, has the sound : — 1. of open u ; as in blue, ensue, 
ague: 2. of close e; as in guest : 3. of obscure e; as in league, antique. 

Ui, an improper diphthong, has the sound — 1. of open i; as guide, guile: 
2. of close i; as in conduit, circuit: 3. of open u; as in juice, suit. 

Uy, an improper diphthong, has the sound — 1. of open y ; as in buy: 2. oi 
feeble y, or open e feeble ; as in plaguy. 

TRIPHTHONGS BEGINNING WITH TJ. 

Ual is pronounced like way ; as in guai-a-cum, quail, quaint. 
Uaw is sounded like wa in water ; as in squaw, a female Indian. 
Uayhas the sound of way, as in Pa-ra-guay • except in quay, which "Walkea 
pronounces Tcee. 

28 



C26 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Uea and uee are sounded wee ; as in queasy, queer, squeal, squeeze. 
Uoi and uoy are sounded woi ; as in quoit, buoy. 

XXII. OF THE LETTER V. 

The consonant V always has a sound like that of f flattened ; as in love, 
vulture. It is never silent. 

XXIII. OF THE LETTER W. 

W, as a consonant, has the sound heard in toine, win, being a sound less 
vocal than that of oo, and depending more upon the lips. 

W before h, is pronounced as if it followed the h ; as in what, when. Be- 
fore r it is always silent; as in wrath, wrench: so in whole, whoop, sword, 
answer, two. 

TFis never used alone as a vowel ; except in some Welsh names, in which 
it is equivalent to oo ; as in Cwm Cothy. In a diphthong, when heard, it has 
the power of u ; as in brow: but it is frequently silent; as inflow, snow, &c. 

W, when sounded before vowels, being reckoned a consonant, we have no 
diphthongs or triphthongs beginning with this letter. 

XXIV. OF THE LETTER X. 

The consonant Xhas a sharp sound, like Tcs ; as in ox: and aflat one, like 
gz; as in example. 

X is sharp, when it ends an accented sellable; as in exit, excellence : or 
when it precedes an accented syllable beginning with a consonant ; as in 
expound, expunge. 

X unaccented, is generally flat when the next syllable begins with a vowel; 
as in exist, exotic. 

X initial, in Greek proper names, has the sound of z ; as in Xanthus, Xan- 
tippe, Xenophon, Xerxes. 

XXV. OF THE LETTER Y. 

Y, as a consonant, has the sound heard in yard, youth ; being rather less 
vocal than the feeble sound of i or y, and serving merely to modify that of a 
succeeding vowel, with which it is quickly united. 

Y, as a vowel, has the same sounds as i : — 

1. The open or long; as in cry, thyme, cycle. 

2. The close or short ; as in system, symptom, cynic. 

3. The feeble ; (like open e feeble ;) as in cymar, cycloidal, mercy. 

The vowels i and y have, in general, exactly the same sound under similar 
circumstances; and, in forming derivatives, we often change one for the 
other : as in city, cities ; tie, tying / easy, easily. 

Y, before a vowel heard in the same syllable, is reckoned a conso-nant ; we 
have, therefore, no diphthongs or triphthongs commencing with this letter. 

XXVI. OF THE LETTER Z. 

The consonant Z always has the sound of s flat; as in breeze, zenith. 



APPENDIX II. 

(ETYMOLOGY.) 

OF THE DEEIYATION OF WOEDS. 

Derivation is a species of Etymology, which explains the various methods 
by which those derivative words which are not formed by mere grammatical 
inflections, are deduced from their primitives. 

Most of those words which are regarded as primitives in English, may be 
traced to ulterior sources, and many of them are found to be compounds or 
derivatives in other languages. A knowledge of the Saxon, Latin, Greek,, 
and French languages, will throw much light on this subject. But as the 
learner is supposed to be unacquainted with those languages, we sht.ll not 
go beyond the precincts of our own; except to show him the origin and 
primitive import of some of our definitive and connecting particles, and to 
explain the prefixes and terminations which are frequently employed to lb: m 
English derivatives. 

'the rude and cursory languages of barbarous nations, to whom literature 
is unknown, are among those transitory things which, by the hand of time, 
are irrecoverably buried in oblivion. The fabric of the English language is 
undoubtedly of Saxon origin ; but what was the form of the language" spoken 
by the Saxons, when about the year 450 they entered Britain, cannot now be 
accurately known. It was probably a dialect of the Gothic or Teutonic. This 
Anglo-Saxon dialect, being the nucleus, received large accessions from other 
tongues of the north, from the Norman French, and from the more polished 
languages of Rome and Greece, to form the modern English. The speech of 
our rude and warlike ancestors thus gradually improved, as Christianity, 
civilization, and knowledge, advanced the arts of life in Britain ; and, as 
early as the tenth century, it became a language capable of expressing all the 
sentiments of a civilized people. From the time of Alfred, its progress may 
be traced by means of writings which remain ; but it can scarcely be called 
English till about the thirteenth century. And for two or three centuries 
later, it was so different from the modern English, as to be scarcely intelli- 
gible to most readers ; but, gradually improving by means upon which we 
cannot here dilate, it at length became what we now find it, a language, copi- 
ous, strong, refined, and capable of no inconsiderable degree of harmony. 

The following is an explanation of the Saxon letters employed below : 

abcdefghijklmnop q 
abcbepghi kJmnopcp 

rst th uvwxy.z. 

n j* G borbu v y x $ z 

SECTION I. — DERIVATION OF THE ARTICLES. 

1. According to Home Toolce, the is the Saxon Se from Sean to taJce ; and Is 
nearly equivalent in meaning to that or those. We find it written in ancient 
works, re, se, see, ye, ee, Se, be, and che ; and, tracing it through what we 
suppose to be the oldest of these forms, we rather consider it the imperative 
of reon to see. 

2. An is the Saxon csn, ane, an, one ; and, by dropping n before a conso- 
nant, becomes a. Gawm Douglas, an ancient English writer, wrote ane, even 
before a consonant; as, "Ane book,"— "Ane lang spere,"— "Ane volume. " 



828 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SECTION II. — DERIVATION OF NOUNS. 

In English, Nouns are derived from nouns, from adjectives, from verbs, 
or from participles. 

I. Nouns are derived from Nouns in several different ways : — 

1. By adding ship, dom, ric, wick, or, ate, hood, or head: as, fellow, fellow* 
ship; Icing, kingdom, • bishop, bishopric; bailiff, or baily, bailiwick; senate, 
senator ; tetrarch, tetrarchate ; child, childhood ; God, Godhead. These gene- 
rally deuote dominion, office, or character. 

2. By adding ian: as, music, musician; physic, physician. These gene*' 
rally denote profession. 

3. By adding y or ery: as, slave, slavery ; fool, foolery ; scene, scenery; cut* 
ler, cutlery ; grocer, grocery. These sometimes denote a state, or habit of 
action ; sometimes, an artificer's wares or shop. 

4. By adding age or ade: as, patron, patronage; porter, porterage; band t 
bandage ; lemon, lemonade. 

5. By adding kin, let, ling, oclc, el, or erel: as, lamb, lambkin ; river, rivu- 
let; duck, duckling ; hill, hillock ; run, runnel ; cock, cockerel. These denote 
little things, and are called diminutives. 

6. By adding ist: as, psalm, psalmist • botany, botanist. These denote 
persons devoted to, or skilled in, the subject expressed by the primitive. 

7. By prefixing an adjective, or an other noun, and forming a compound 
word; as, holiday, foreman, statesman, tradesman. 

8. By prefixing Ms, %n, non, or un, to reverse the meaning : as, order, dis- 
order ;' consistency, inconsistency ; observance, nonobservance ; truth, untruth. 

'9. By prefixing counter, signifying against or opposite: as, attraction, 
counter-attraction ; bond, counter-bond. 

10. By adding ess, ix, or ine, to change masculines to feminines : as, heir, 
heiress ; prophet, prophetess ; abbot, abbess ; testator, testatrix ; hero, heroine. 

11. Nouns are dorived from Adjectives in several different ways : — 

1. By ad din' ness, %ty, ship, dom, or hood : as, good, goodness ; real, reality ; 
hard, hardship ? e wise, wisdom ; false, falsehood. 

2. By changing t into ce or cy : as, radiant, radiance ; consequent, conse- 
quence ; flagrant, flag rancy ; current, currency. 

3. Bv changing some of the letters, and adding t or th: as, long, length; 
broad, breadth ; high, height. The nouns included under these three heads, 
generally denote abstract qualities, and are called abstract nouns. 

4. By adding ard: as, drunk, drunkard; dull, dullard. These denote 
the character of a person. 

5. By adding ist : as, sensual, sensualist ; royal, royalist. These denote 
persous devoted, ad<"cted, or attached, to something. 

6. By adding a, the Latin ending of neuter plurals, to certain proper ad- 
jectives in an : as, Miltonian, Miltoniana ; i. e., Miltonian things — matters 
relating to Milton. 

III. Nouns are derived from Verbs in several different ways : — 

1. By adding meat, ance, ure, or age: as, punish, punishment ; repent, re- 
pentance ; forfeit, forfeiture ; stow, stowage; equip, equipage. 

2. By changing the termination of the verb, into se, ce, sion, lion, ation, or 
ilion: as, expand, expanse, expansion; pretend, pretence, pretension; invent, 
invention; create, creation ; omit, omission; provide, provision ; reform, refor- 
mation; oppose, opposition. These denote the act of doing, or the thing 
done. 

3. By adding er or or: as, hunt, hunter; write, writer; collect, collector. 
These generally denote the doer. 

4. Nouns and verbs are sometimes alike in orthography, but different in 
pronunciation : as, a house, to house ; a reb'el, to rebel' ; a rec'ord, to record'. 
Sometimes they are wholly alike, and are distinguished only by the con- 
struction r as, love, to love; fear, to fear ; sleep, to sleep. 

IV Nouns are often derived from Participles in ing. Such nouns are 
usually distinguished from participles, only by their construction: as, q 
meeting, the understanding, murmurings, disputmgs. 



APPENDIX II.— (ETYMOLOGY.) — DERIVATION. 329 

SECTION III. — DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

In English, Adjectives are derived from nouns, from adjectives, from 
Verbs, or from participles. 

I. Adjectives are derived from Kouns in several different ways : — 

1. By adding ous, ious, eous, y, ey, ic, al, ical, or ine: (sometimes with an 
omission or change of some of the final letters:) as, danger, dangerous; 
glory, glorious,' right, righteous; rock, rocky ; clay, clayey ; poet, poetic ; na- 
tion, national ; method, methodical ; vertex, vertical : clergy, clerical ; ada- 
mant, adamantine. Adjectives thus formed, generally apply the properties 
of their primitives to the nouns to which they relate. 

2. By adding Jul: as, fear, fearful ; cheer, cheerful; grace, graceful. 
These denote abundance. 

3. By adding some : as, burden, burdensome ; game, gamesome. These de- 
note plenty, but with some diminution. 

4. By adding en : as, oak, oaken ; silk, silken. These generally denote the 
matter of which a thing is made. 

5. By adding ly or ish : as, friend, friendly ; child, childish, These denote 
resemblance ; for ly signifies like. 

6. By adding able or ible : as, fashion, fashionable ; access, accessible. But 
these terminations are generally added to verbs. 

7. By adding less: as, house, houseless; death, deathless. These denote 
privation or exemption. 

8. Adjectives from proper names, take various terminations : as, America, 
American ; England, English ; Dane, Danish ; Portugal, Portuguese ; Plato, 
Platonic. 

9. By adding ed : as, saint, sainted ; bigot, bigoted. These are participial, 
and are often joined with other adjectives to form compounds ; as, three- 
sided, bare-footed, long-eared, hundred-handed, fat-nosed. 

10. Nouns are often converted into adjectives, without change of termina- 
tion : as, paper currency ; a gold chain. 

11. Adjectives are derived from Adjectives in several different ways: — 

1. By adding ish or some: as, white, whitish ; lone, lonesome. These denoto 
quality with some diminution. 

2. By prefixing dis, in, or tin : as, honest, dishonest ; consistent, inconsis- 
tent; wise, unwise. These express a negation of the quality denoted by 
their primitives. 

3. By adding y or ly : as, sioarth, swarthy ; good, goodly. Of these there 
are but few ; for almost all derivatives of the latter form, are adverbs. 

III. Adjectives are derived from Verbs in several different ways : — 

1. By adding able or ible: (sometimes with a change of some' of the final 
letters:) as, perish, perishable; vary, variable; convert, convertible; divide, 
divisible. These denote susceptibility. 

2. By adding ive or ory : (sometimes with a change of some of the final 
letters:) as, elect, elective; interrogate, interrogative, interrogatory; defend, 
defensive ; defame, defamatory. 

'3. Words ending in ate, are mostly verbs : but some of them may be em- 
ployed as adjectives, in the same form, especially in poetry : as, reprobate^ 
complicate. 

IV. Adjectives are derived from Participles in the following ways : — 

1. By prefixing un: as, unyielding, unregarded, undeserved- 

2. By combining the participle with some word which does not belong to 
the verb ; as, way-faring, hollow-sounding, long-drawn. 

3. Participles often become adjectives without change of form. Such ad- 
ectives are distinguished from participles only by the construction : as, "A 

sting ornament ;"— 4i The starving chemist ;"— " Words of learned length." 



t 



SECTION IV. — DERIVATION OF THE PRONOUNS. 

I. The English Pronouns are all of Saxon origin. The following appears 
to be their derivation : — 

28* 



S30 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Eng. 


I, 


JM^ Or 7724726, 


me; 


we, 


cwr or ours, 


us. 


Sax. 


IC, 


nun, 


me; 


?e, 


une, 


up. 


Eng. 


thou. 


, z*% or z'/iifie, 


thee; 


ye, 


your or yours, 


2/om 


Sax. 


5u, ' 


bill, 


be; 


ge, 


eopen, 


eop. 


Eng. 


he. 


his, 


him; 


*%, 


z"Aar or ^Aeirs, 


them. 


Sax. 


he, 


hyr, 


him ; 


hi, 


hina, or heona, 


hem. 


Eng. 


she. 


for, or fors, 


her ; 


they, 


their or theirs, 


them,. 


Sax. 


heo, 


bena or hyna, 


hen; 


hi, 


hina, or heona, 


hem. 


Eng. 


it, 


tfe, 


it ; 


they, 


Meir or theirs, 


them. 


Sax. 


hib, 


hyr, 


lnfc ; 


hi, 


hina, or heona, 


hem. 



The plurals and oblique cases do not all appear to be regular derivatives* 
from the nominative singular. Many of these pronouns, as well as a vast 
number of other words of frequent use in the language, were variously writ- 
ten by the old English and Anglo-Saxon authors. He who traces the iiistory 
of our language will meet with them under all the following forms, and per- 
haps more: — 

1. I, J, Y, y, y, l, ic, che, ich, ic ; — my, mi, min, mine, myne, myn, myn; — 
me, mee, me, mch, mec, mech ; — we, wee, ve, ye;— our or ours, oure, une, 
lire, urin, uren, urne, user, usscr, nsses, usse, ussum ; — us, ous, vs, up, uss, 
iTsic, usi eh, usig, usih. 

2. Thou, tlioue, thow, thowe, thu, Su, bu; — thy, thi, thin, thine, tbyne, 
thyn, &m, bm; — thee, the, tlieh, thee, be pe; — ye, yee, ze, zee, ge, ghe; — 
your or yours, youre, zour, gour, goure, hure, eopeji ; — you, youe, yow, gou, 
zou, ou, in, mh, eop, iow, geow, eowih, eowic, iowih. 

3. He, hee, hie, hi, be, se ;— his, hise, is, hys, hyse, ys, ys, hys, hyp;— 
him, bine, hen, hyne, hiene, hion, hym, hym, im, him ; — they, thay, thei, 
the, tha, thai, thii, yai, hi, hii, hie, heo, hig, hyg, by, big, hi; — their or 
theirs, ther, theyr, theyrs, thair, thare, hare, here, her, hir, hire, hira, 
hypa, Seona, beona, heora ; — them, theym, thym, thaym, tbaim, thame, tham, 
em, hem, heom, hiom, bom, eom, him, hi, hig. 

4. She, shee, scbe, scho, sho, shoe, pcee, reo, heo, hio, hiu; — her, [pos- 
sessive,] hur, hir, hire, hyr, byre, hyne, hyna, hejia ; — her, [objective,] hir, 
hire, hen, byre, hi. 

5. It, itt, byt, hytt, yt, yfc, hit, is, hie. According to Home Tooke, this pro- 
noun is from t'*e perfect participle of hsecan, to name, and signifies the said; 
but Dr. Alexander Murray makes it the neuter of a declinable adjective, 
"he, heo, hita, this.' 1 '' — Hist. Europ. Lang., Vol. i, p. 815. 

II. The relatives are derived from the same source, and have passed 
through similar changes, or varieties in orthography ; as, 

1. Who, ho, wba, hwa, wua, hua, qua, quha, hpa, hue; — whose, who's, 
whos, quhois, quhais. quhase, hpaep ; — whom, whome, quhum, quhome, 
hwom, hpam, hwaem, hwsene, hwone. 

2. Which, wbiche, whyche, wbilch, wych, quilch, quilk, quhilk, hwile, 
hpile, hwyle, hwelc, whil'k, huilic, hvilc. 

8. What, hwat, hwaet, hwet, quhat. This pronoun, whether relative or 
interrogative, is regarded by some as a neuter derivative from the masculine 
or feminine wha, who. It may have been thence derived, but, in modem 
English, it is not always of the neuter gender. 

4. That, in Anglo-Saxon, is thcet, or bast. Home Tooke supposes this 
word to have been originally the perfect participle of thean, to tale. This 
derivation is doubtful. 

From its various uses, the word that is called sometimes a pronoun, some- 
times an adjective, and sometimes a conjunction ; but, in respect to deriva- 
tion, it is, doubtless, one and the same. — As an adjective, it was formerly 
applicable to a plural noun; as, "That holy ordresy — Dr. Martin. 

SECTION V. — DERIVATION OF VERBS. 

In English, Verbs are derived from nouns, from adjectives, or from verbs. 
I. Verbs are derived from JVouns in the following ways : — 



APPENDIX II.— (ETYMOLOGY.) — DERIVATION. 331 

1. By adding ize. ise, en, or ate: as, author, authorize ; critic, criticise; 
length, lengthen ; origin, originate. The termination ize is of Greek origin ; 
and ise, of French : the former should be generally preferred in forming 
English derivatives ; but ise usually terminates such verbs as are essentially 
formed by means of prefixes ; as, arise, disguise, advise, circumcise, despise, 
surmise, comprise, compromise, enterprise. 

2. By changing a consonant, or by adding mute e : as, advice, advise; bath, 
lathe ; breath, breathe. 

II. Verbs are derived from Adjectives in the following ways : — 

1. By adding en, ate, or ize: as, deep, deepen; domestic, domesticate ; civil, 
civilize. 

2. Many adjectives become verbs, without change of form : as, warm, to 
warm; dry, to dry ; black, to black ; forward, to forward. 

III. Verbs are derived from Verbs in the following ways: — 

1. By prefixing dis or un, to reverse the meaning: as, please, displease; 
qualify, disqualify ; fasten, unfasten; muzzle, unmuzzle. 

2. By prefixing a,' be, for, fore, mis, over, out, under, up, or with: as, rise, 
arise sprinkle, besprinkle; bid, forbid ; see, foresee; take, mistake; look, 
overlook; run, outrun; go, undergo ; hold, uphold; draw, withdraw. 

SECTION VI. — DERIVATION OF PARTICIPLES. 

All English Participles are derived from English verbs, in the manner ex- 
plained under the head of Etymology ; and when foreign participles are in- 
troduced into our language, they are not participles with us, but belong to 
Borne other part of speech. 

SECTION VII. — DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 

1. In English, many Adverbs are derived from adjectives by adding ly, 
which is an abbreviation for like: as, candid, mndidly ; sordid, sordidly. 
Most adverbs of manner are thus formed. 

2. Many adverbs are compounds formed from two or more English words; 
as, herein, thereby, to-day, always, already, elsewhere, sometimes, wherewithal. 
The formation and the meaning of these are in general sufficiently obvious. 

3. About seventy adverbs are formed by means of the prefix a; as, Abreast, 
abroad, across, afresh, away, ago, awry, astray. 

4. Needs, as an adverb, (meaning necessarily,) is a contraction of need is; 
prithee, oil pray thee; alone, of all one; only, of one like; anon, of in one 
[instant] ; never, oine ever ; [not ever]. 

5. Very is from the French veray, or vrai, true. "Still," says Tooke, "is 
from the imperative of the Saxon r-cellan, to put f and "Else is from the 
imperative of alepan, to dismiss." leather is the comparative of the ancient 
rath, soon. 

SECTION VIII. — DERIVATION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

The English Conjunctions are mostly of Saxon origin. The best diction- 
aries of our language give us, for the most part, the same words in Saxon 
characters ; but Home Tooke, in his Diversions of Purley, a learned and 
curious work which the advanced student may peruse with advantage, 
traces these and many other English particles to Saxon verbs or participles. 
The following derivations, so far as they partake of such speculations, are 
offered pinciprlly on his authority: — 

1. Although, signifying admit, allow, is from all and though; the latter 
being the imperative of an ancient verb, meaning to allow. 

2. An, an obsolete conjunction, signifying if, or grant, is the imperative of 
the Saxon verb anan, to grant. 

3. And, denoting addition, is said by Tooke to come from an-ab, the im- 
perative of anan-ab, to grant to, to add. 

4. As, according to Dr. Johnson, is from the Teutonic als ; but J. H. 
Tooke says that als itself is a contraction for all and the original particle es o& 
its, meaning it, that, or which. 



332 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. Because, meaning by cause, is from be (Saxon for by) and cause. 

6. Both, the two, is from the pronominal adjective both ; which, according 
to Dr. Alex. Murray, is a contraction of the Visigothic bagoth, doubled. The 
Anglo-Saxons wrote for it butu, butwu, buta, and batwa ; i. e., ba, both, twa, 
two. 

7. But, implying addition, is supposed by, Tooke to have come from " bosr, 
the imperative of bosan, to boot, to add." 1,1 

8. But, denoting exception, is conjectured by the same author to have coma 
from " be-ucan, the imperative of beon-ucan, to be out.'''' 

9. Either, one of the two, is from the Saxon cegether, or egther. 

1#. Eke, signifying also or add, (now nearly obsolete) is from eac, the im 
perative of eacan, to add. 

11. Except, which, as a conjunction, means unless, is the imperative, or 
(according to Dr. Johnson) an ancient perfect participle, of the verb to except. 

12. For, meaning because, is the Saxon pon, or the Dutch voor, from a 
Gothic noun signifying cause or sake. 

13. If, meaning give, grant, allow, is from gip, [gif,] the imperative of gipan, 
to give. 

14. Lest, meaning that not, dismissed, is from lepeb, the perfect participle 
of lepan, to dismiss. 

15. Neither, not either, is a union and contraction of ne either: our old 
writers frequently used ne for not. 

16. Nor, not other, not else, is a union and contraction of ne or. 

■ 17. Notwithstanding, not hindering, is an English compound which needs 
no further explanation. 

18. Or has been supposed a contraction of the Saxon o5en, other. Dr. 
Bosworth gives o55e as its Saxon equivalent. 

19. Save, [but, except,] anciently used as a conjunction, is the imperative of 
the verb to save, meaning to except. 

20. Since [seeing or seen] is from pmer, or pyne, the perfect participle of 
peon, to see. Seeing, too, is sometimes a copulative conjunction. 

21. Than, which introduces the latter term of a comparison, is from the 
Saxon ftanne, which was used for the same purpose. 

22. That [taken] is from Sast, the perfect participle of Sean, to take. 

23. Though [alloiv] is from Sapig, the imperative of <5apigan, to allow. 

24. Unless [except, dismiss,] is from onlep, the imperative of onleran, to 



25. Whether, which introduces the first term of an alternative, is tho 
Saxon hpseSen, which was used for the same purpose. 

26. Yet, [nevertheless,] is from gee, tho imperative of gecan, to get. 

SECTION IX. — DERIVATION OF PREPOSITIONS. 

The following is the derivation of most of the English Prepositions :— 

1. About [at circuit] is from the French a,, or the English prefix a, mean- 
inn: at or to, and bout, meaning turn, or limit. 

2. Above [at-by-high] is from the Saxon, a, be, and upa, high. 

3. Across [at-cross] is from a and the noun cross. 

A. After [farther in the rear] is the comparitive of aft, now used only by 
seamen. 

5. Against [opposed tr] is from on-geonb, gone at. 

6. Along [at-long] is from a and long. 

7. Amid [at mid or middle] is from a and mid. 

8. Amidst [at midst] is from a and midst, contracted from middest, the su» 
perlative of mid. 

9. Among [a-mixed] is abbreviated from amongst. 

10. Amongst [a-mixed] is from a and mongst, a Saxon participle signifying 



11. Around [at circle] is from a and round, circle or sphere. 

12. At [joining] is supposed by some to come from the Latin ad ; but Dr 
Murray says. " We have in Teutonic at for agt, touching or touched, joined, 
at."— Hist. Lang. : i, 349. 



APPENDIX II.— (ETYMOLOGY.)— DERIVATION. 333 

13. Athwart [across] is from a and thwart, cross. 

14. Before [by-fore] is from the prefix be and the adjective fore. 

15. Behind [by-kind] is from the prefix be and the adjective hind. 

16. Below [by-low] is from the prefix be and the adjective low. 

17. Beneath [below] is from be and the adjective math, low ; whence the 
comparative nether, lower. 

18. Beside [by-side] is from be and the noun side. 

19. Besides* f %-siaesJ is from be and the plural noun sides. 

20. Between [by-twain] is from ta and twain, two. 

21. Betwixt [oeta;e<m] is from be and tfw^x, a Gothie word signifying foco, 
or twain. 

22. Beyond [Jy-^one] is from be and geonb, the perfect participle of 
jeonban, to pass, or go. 

23. By (formerly written hi and fo) is the imperative of beon, to be. 

24. Concerning is from the first participle of the verb to concern. 

25. Down [low] is from the Anglo-Saxon adjective dun, low. 

26. Dorlng [lasting] is from an old verb dure, to last, formerly in use ; as, 
" While the world may dure.' 1 '' — Chaucer 's Knight? i Tale. 

27. Except is from the imperative, or (according to Dr. Johnson) the an- 
cient perfect participle, of the verb to except. 

28. Excepting is from the first participle of the verb to except. 

29. For [by cause of] is from a Gothic noun signifying cause or sake. 

30. From is derived from the Saxon pnum, or pnam, beginning. 

31. In is from the Latin in : the Greek is ei>, and the French en. 

32. Into is a compound of in and to. 

33. Notwithstanding [not hindering] is from the adverb not, and the par- 
ticiple withstanding. 

34. Of is from the Saxon op, which H. TooTce supposes to be from a noun 
eignifying offspring. 

35. Off (opposed to on) Br. Johnson derives from the Dutch af. 

36. On is traced by etymologists to the Gothic ana, the German an, the 
Dutch aan : but such a derivation does not^K its meaning. 

37. Outof (opposed to into) is from the adverb out and the preposition of 
— usually written separately, but better joined in some instances. 

38. Over [above] is from upena, higher. 

39. Overthwart is a compound of over and thwart, cross. 

40. Past is a contraction from the perfect participle passed. 

41. Round [about] is from the noun or adjective round. 

42. Since [seen], says Tooke, is from the perfect participle of reon, to see. 

43. Through (contracted from thorough) is from a Saxon word meaning 
door or passage. 

44. Throughout is a compound of through and out. 

45. Tied [the end] is from the Saxon til, [Sasonfor^,] noting end of time. 

46. To is a simple word from the Saxon to, which is supposed to come 
from a Gothic noun signifying end. 

47. Touching is from the first participle of the verb to touch. 

48. Toward or towards is probably a compound of to and ward t from 
panbran, to look. 

49. Under [on nether] is from the Dutch on neder, on lower. 

50. Underneath is a compound from under and neath, low. 

51. Until is a compound from on or un and till, the end. 

52. Unto (now little used) is from on or un and to. 

53. Up is from the Saxon up, which E. Toole traces to upa, Ugh. 
64. Upon [high on] is from up and on. 

55. With [join] is probably from the imperative of piSan, to join. 

56. Within [by-in] is from with and in. 

57. Without [by-out] is from with and out. 

58. Worth [of the value of] is from the Saxon verb wyrthan or weorthan, 
to be; and has, by pedigree, as good a claim to be a preposition as by and 

* Beside should be used as a preposition, and besides only as an advert). See rea- 
sons for this distinction, in CanvpbeWs Philosophy of Rhetoric. 



834 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

vrith : the old English writers used worth for be, in every part of the conju- 
gation. According to J. H. Tooke, with, in the two compounds within and 
without, is from pyn$, the imperative of pynSan, to be ; and the meaning of 
the former is be in, and of the Jatter be out. Compare the derivations of by, 
with, and worth ; and see observations 6th and 7th, on Rule 22d, pago 
209. 

SECTION X. — DERIVATION OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Those significant and constructive words which are occasionally used a8 
Interjections, do not require an explanation here ; and those mere sounds 
which are in no wise expressive of thought, scarcely admit of definition or 
derivation. The interjection Hey is probably a corruption of the adjective 
high; — Alas is from the Fre.ich helas ; — Alack is probably a corruption of 
alas; — Welaway (which is now corrupted into weltaday,) is from the Saxon 
palapa, wo on, wo; — Fie, from plan, to hate; — Heyday, from high day y— 
Avaunt, from the French avant, before ; — Lo, from look ; —Begone, from be 
and gone; — Welcome, from well and come. 

SECTION XI. — EXPLANATION OF THE PREFIXES. 

In the formation of words, certain particles are often employed as prefixes ; 
which, as they generally have some peculiar import, may be separately ex- 
plained. A few of them are of Anglo-Saxon origin ; and the greater part 
of these are still employed as separate words in our language. The rest are 
Latin, Greek, or French prepositions. The roots to which they are prefixed, 
are not always proper English words. Those which are such, are called 
/Separable Ba'dioals; and those which are not such, Inseparable Eadicals. 

CLASS I. ENGLISH OR ANGLO-SAXON PREFIXES. 

1. A, as an English prefix, signifies on, in, at, or to : as in a-board, ashore, 
asleep, a-far, afield. The French d, to, is probably the same particle ; as 
in a-dieu. This prefix is sometimes redundant ; as in a-wake, a-rise. 

2. Be signifies upon, to, by, or for ; as in bespatter, be-times, be-tide, be- 
speak. It is sometimes redundant ; as in be-gird,be-deck, be-loved. 

3. Counter means against or opposite; as in counter-poise, counter-evidence, 
counter-natural. 

4. Fq^, in composition, seems to signify from : it is found in the irregular 
verbs for-bear, for-bid, for-get, for-gwe, forsake, forswear ; and in for-do, 
for-pass,for-pine, forsay, for-think, for-waste, which last are now seldom 
used. 

5. Fore, prefixed to verbs, signifies before; as in fore-know, fore-tell : pre- 
fixed to nouns, it is an adjective, and signifies anterior ; as in fore-side, j 'ore- 
part. 

6. Hale, signifying one of two equal parts, is much used in composition ; 
and, often, merely to denote imperfection : as, half-sighted, seeing imper- 
fectly. 

7. Mis signifies wrong; as in mis-do, mis-place. 

8. Our, prefixed to verbs, generally denotes excess ; as in out-do, out-leap, 
prefixed to nouns, it is an adjective, and signifies exterior; as in out-side? 
out-parish. 

9. Over usually denotes superiority or excess ; as in over-power, over-strain, 
over-large, over-dose, over-growth. 

10. Self signifies One's own person, or belonging to one^s own person. It is 
much used in composition ; as in self-love, self-abuse, self-affairs, self-willed, 
self -accusing. Sometimes self means very ; as in self-same. 

11. Un denotes negation or contrariety ; as in un-kind, un-load. 

12. Under denotes inferiority ; as in under-value, under-clerk, 

13. Up denotes motion upwards ; as in up-l ift : sometimes subversion ; as 
in up-set. 

14. With, as a prefix, (unlike the common preposition With,) signifies 
against, from, or back; as in withstand, with-hold, with-draw. 



. APPENDIX II. — (ETYMOLOGY.)— -DERIVATION. 835 

CLASS II. LATIN PREFIXES. 

The primitives to which these are prefixed, are n>t many of them employ- 
ed separately in English. The final letter of the prefix ad, con, ex, in, ob, or 
sub, is often changed before certain consonants. 

1. A, ab, or ab9, means from, or away : as, a-vert, to turn from; ab-duce, 
to lead from ; abs-iract, to draw away. 

2. Ad, ac, af at, an, op, as, at, — to or at : as, ad-vert, to turn to ; ae-cede, 
to yield to; af-fiux, a flowing-to ; ally, to bind to; an-nex, to link to; ap- 
ply, to put to ; assume, to take to ; at-test, to witness to. 

3. Ante, — before : as ante-cedent, going before ; ante-mundane, before the 
world ; ante-date, to date before. 

4. Circum, — around or about : as, circum-volve, to roll around. 

5. Con, com, co, col, cor, — together : as, contract, to draw together ; com* 
pel, to drive together ; co-erce, to force together ; col-lect, to gather together ; 
cor-rade, to scrape together; con-junction, a joining-together. 

6. Contra, — against: as contra-diet, to speak against. 

7. De,— of, from, or down : as, de-note, to be a sign of; de-tract, to draw 
from ;, de-pend, to hang down; de-press, to press down. 

8. Dis, di, — away or apart: as, dis-pel, to drive away; dissect, to cut 
apart ; di-vert, to turn away. Dis, before English words, generally reverse* 
their meaning ; as, please, ais-please. 

9. E or ex, ec, ef, — out : as, e-ject, to cast out ; ex-tract, to draw out ; eo* 
stacy, a raising-out ; ef-face, to blot out. 

10. Extra, — beyond : as, extra-vagant, wandering beyond. 

11. In, il, im, ir, — in, into, against, or upon: as, inspire, to breathe in 
il-lude, to draw in by deceit; irn-mure, to vail in; ir-ruption, a breaking-in 
in-cur, to run into; in-dict, to declare against; im-pute, to charge upon 
These syllables, prefixed to nouns or adjectives, generally reverse their 
meaning ; as, ir-religion, ir-rational, insecure, insane. 

12. Inter,— between : as, intersperse, to scatter between; inter-jection, 
Bomething thrown in between. 

13. Intro, — within : as, intro-vert, to turn within. 

14. Ob, oc, of, op, — against: as, ob-trude, to thrust against; oc-cur, to run 
against ; of-fer, to bring against ; op-pose, to place against ; ob-ject, cast 
against. 

15. Per,— through or by: as, per-vade, to go through; per-chance, by 
chance ; per-cent, by the hundred. 

16. Post, — after : as, post-pone, to place after. 

17. Pr.e, or pre, — before : as, presume, to take before ; pre-position, a 
placing-before, or something placed before. 

18. Pro, — for, forth, or forwards : as, pro-vide, to take care for ; pro-duce, 
to bring forth ; pro-trude, to thrust forwards. 

19. Preter, — past or beyond : as, preier-it, gone by ; preter-natmral, be- 
yond what is natural. 

20. Re, — again or back : as, re-view, to view again ; re-pel, to drive back. 

21. Retro, — backwards: as, retro-cession, a going-backwards. 

22. Se, — aside or apart : as, se-duce, to lead aside ; se-cede, to go apart. 

23. Semi, — half: as, semi-colon, half a colon; semicircle, half a circle; 
semi-vowel, half a vowel. 

24. Sub, sup, sur, — under: as, subscribe, to write under; sup-ply, to put 
under ; sur-reption, a creeping-under ; sub-ject, cast under. - 

25. Subter, — beneath : as, subter-fluous, flowing beneath. 

26. Super, — over or above: as, superfluous, flowing over; super-natant, 
cwimming above; super-lative, carried over. 

27. Trans,— beyond, over, to an other state or place : as, trans-gress, to 
pass beyond or over ; trans-mit, to send to an other place ; trans-form, to 
change to an other shape. 

CLASS III. GREEK PREFIXES. 

1. A and an, in Greek derivatives, denote privation : as, a-nomalous, want- 
ing rule ; an-onymous, wanting name ; an-archy, want of government. 



836 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

2. Amphi, — both or two : as, amphi-bious, living in two elements. 

3. Anti, — against : as, anti-acid, against acidity ; anti-febrile, against ferer; 
anti-thesis, a placing-agamst. 

4. Apo, aph, — from : as, apostrophe, a turning-from ; aph-<zresis, a taking- 
from. 

5. Dia, — through: as, dia-gonal, through the corners; dia-meter, the 
measure through. 

6. Epi, eph, — upon : as, epi-demic, upon the people ; eph-emera, upon a 
day. 

7. Hemi, — half: as, hemisphere, half a sphere. 

8. Hyper, — over : as, hyper-critical, over-critical. 

9. Hypo, — under: as, hypostasis, substance, or that which stands under; 
hypo-thesis, supposition, or a placing-under. 

10. Meta,— beyond, over, to an other state or place : as, meta-morphose, 
to change to an other shape. 

11. Para, — against : as, para-dox, something contrary to common opinion. 

12. Peri, — around : as, peri-phery, the circumference, or measure round. 

13. Stn, sym, syl, — together: as, syn-tax, a placing-together ; sym-pathy t 
a suffering-together ; syl-lable, what is taken together. • 

CLASS IV. FRENCH PREFIXES. 

1. A is a preposition of very frequent use in French, and generally means 
to. We have suggested that it is probably the same as the Anglo-Saxon 
prefix a. It is found in a few English compounds that are of French, and 
not of Saxon origin : a-dieu, to God ; a-bout, to the end or turn. 

2. De, —of or from : as in de-mure, of manners ; dc-liver, to ease from or 
of. 

3. Demi, — half: as, demi-man, half a man ; demi-god, half a god. 

4. En, em, — in, into, or upon : as, en-chain, to hold in chains ; em-brace, to 
clasp in the arms ; en-tomb, to put into a tomb ; em-boss, to stud upon. Many 
words are yet wavering between the French and the Latin orthography of 
this prefix: as, embody, or irnbody ; ensurance, or insurance; ensnare, or in- 
snare : enquire, or inquire. 

5. Sur, — upon, over, or after : as, sur-name, a name upon a name ; mr° 
wy } to look over ; mr-vive, to live after, to overlive, to outlive. 



APPENDIX III. 

(SYNTAX.) 

OF THE QUALITIES OF STYLE. 

Style is the particular manner in which a person expresses his conceptions 
¥y means of language. It is different from mere words, and is not to be 
regulated altogether by rules of construction. It always has some relation 
to the author's peculiar manner of thinking ; and, being that sort of expres- 
sion which his thoughts most readily assume, sometimes partakes, not only 
of what is characteristic of the man, but even of national peculiarity. The 
words which an author employs, may be proper, and so constructed as to 
violate no rule of syntax ; and yet his style may have great faults. 

To designate the general characters of style, such epithets as concise, dif- 
fuse,— neat, negligent, — nervous, feeble, — simpl , affected, — easy, stiff, — 
perspicuous, obscure, — elegant, florid, — are mployed. A considerable di- 
versity of style, may be found in compositions all equally excellent in their 
kind. And, indeed, different subjects, as well as the different endowments 
by which genius is distinguished, require this di. ersity. But in forming his 
style, the learner should remember, that a negligent, feeble, affected, stiff, or 
obscure style, is always faulty; and that perspicuity, ease, simplicity, 
strength, and neatness, are qualities always to be aimed at. 

In order to acquire a good style, the frequent practice of composing and 
writing something, is indispensably neces°ary. Without exercise and dili- 
gent attention, rules or precepts for the attainment of this object, will be of 
no avail. When the learner has acquired such a knowledge of grammar, as 
to be in some degree qualified for the undertaking, he should devote a stated 
portion of his time to composition. This exercise will bring the powers of 
his mind into requisition, in a way that is well calculated to strengthen them. 
And if he has opportunity for reading, he may, by a diligent perusal of the 
best authors, acquire both language and taste, as well as sentiment ; and 
these three are the essential qualifications of a good writer. 

In regard to the qualities which constitute a good style, we can here offer 
no more than a few brief hints. With respect to words and phrases, partic- 
ular attention should be paid to purity, propriety, and precision ; and, with 
respect to sentences, to perspicuity, unity, and strength. Under each of these 
heads, we shall arrange in the form of short precepts a few of the most im- 
portant directions for the forming of a good style. 

SECTION I.— OF PUEITY. 

Purity of style consists in the use of such words and phrases only, as be- 
long to the language which we write or speak. 

Precept 1. Avoid the unnecessary use of foreign words or idioms : as, 
fraicheur, hauteur, delicatesse, politesse, noblesse ; he repented himself; it serves 
to an excellent purpose. 

Precept 2. Avoid, on ordinary occasions, obsolete or antiquated words; 
as^whilom, erewhile, whoso, albeit, moreover, aforetime, methinks. 

Precept 3. Avoid strange or unauthorized words : as, fiutteration, mspec- 
tator, judgematical, incumber ment, connexity, electerized, martyrized. 

Precept 4. Avoid bombast, or affectation of fine writing. It is ridiculous, 
however serious the subject: as, "Personifications, however rich the depic- 
tions, and unconstrained their latitude; analogies, however imposing th^ 

15 



338 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

objects of parallel, and the media of comparison ; can never expose the con- 
sequences of sin to the extent of fact, or the range of demonstration."— 
Anonymous. 

SECTION II, — OF PROPRIETY. 

Propriety of language consists in the selection and right construction, of 
such words as the best usage has appropriated to those ideas -which we in- 
tend to express by them. 

Precept 1. Avoid low and provincial expressions: such as, "Says If— • 
"Thinks I to myself;' 1 '' — "To get into a scrape;''' 1 — " Stay here while I return." 

Precept 2. In writing prose, avoid words and phrases that are merely 
poetical : such as, morn, eve, plaint, lone, amid, oft, steepy ; — "what time the 
winds arise." 

Precept 3. Avoid technical terms : except where they are necessary, in 
treating of a particular art or science. In technology, they are proper. 

Precept 4, Avoid the recurrence of words in different senses, or su^h a 
repetition of words as denotes paucity of language: as, "His own reason 
might have suggested hetter reasons." — " Gregory favoured the und rtaking, 
for no other reason than this; that the manager, in countenance, favoured 
his friend." — " I want to go and see what he ivants." 

Precept 5. Supply words that are wanting : thus, in stead of saying, " This 
action increased his former services," say, " This action increased the merit 
of his former services." 

Precept 6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions : as, " His memory 
shall be lost on the earth." — " I long since learned to like nothing but what 
you do." 

Precept 7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions : as, " I have 
observed that the superiority among these coffee-house politicians, proceeds 
from an opmion of gallantry and fashion." — "These words do not convey 
even an opaque idea of the author's meaning." 

Precept 8. Observe the natural order of things or events, and do not put 
the cart lefore the horse : as, " The scribes taught and studied the law of 
Moses."— "They can neither return to nor leave their houses." — "He tum- 
bled, head over heels, into the water." 

SECTION III. — OF PRECISION. 

Precision consists in avoiding all superfluous words, and adapting the ex- 
pression exactly to the thought, so as to exhibit neither more nor less than 
is intended by the author. 

Precept 1. Avoid a useless tautology, either of expression or sentiment: 
as in, "Return again; — return lack again; — converse together; — risewp;— 
fall down ; — enter m ; — a mutual likeness to each other ;— ^the latter end ; — 
liquid streams ;— grateful thanks; — the last of all /—throughout the whole 
book." " Whenever I go, he always meets me there." — " Where is he at ? 
In there."—" Nothing else but that."—" It is odious and hateful."—" His 
faithfulness and fidelity should be rewarded." 

Precept 2. Observe the exact meaning of words accountpd synonymous, 
and employ those which are the most suitable: as, " A diligent scholar may 
acquire knowledge, gam celebrity, obtain rewards, win prizes, and get high 
honour, though he earn no money." These six verbs have nearly the same 
meaning, and yet they cannot well be changed. 

SECTION IY. — OF PERSPICUITY. 

Perspicuity consists in freedom from obscurity or ambiguity. It is a qual- 
ity so essentia], in every kind of writing, that for the want of it, no merit 
can atone. "Without this, the richest ornaments of style, only glimmer 
through the dark, and puzzle instead of pleasing the reader."— Blair. Per- 
spicuity, being the most important property of language, and an exemption 
from the most embarrassing defects, seems even to rise to a degree of posi- 
tive beauty. We are naturally pleased with a style that frees us from all 



APPENDIX HI.-— (SYNTAX.)— STYLE. 339 

stream, through which we can see to the very bottom;" P 

and m such a station as the sense requires. The folliS sentE are 

s t <x,d liberty, * ^ as well as we!^ ?fcas ne^S^rtr 
Precept 2. In prose, avoid a poetic collocation of words. 

BelTt^Lir%^TfI^^ &r l d repeat allwords ^cessarj to pre- J 
nrn^Wa T'fi following sentences require the words inserted in 

crotchets : "Restlessness of mind disqualifies us, both for the en ovment of 
peace and f/or] the performance of our duty ''-J^w/S7 ^The 

SECTION V. — OF UNITY. 

^S^If nS - i8tS ^ aV0id l ng USeles3 breaks or P au ses, and keeping one ob- 
ject predominant throughout a sentence or paragraph. £ve?y fentence 
Whether its parts be few or many, requires strict unity! Y Sentence ' 

Precept 1. Avoid brokenness and hatching. The following examnle Hoi™ 
the very quality of which it speaks : " But most of all, ™ln«KteSe? 
is required the strictest unity. It may consist of mrt. *WW yX,i *l emence > 
must be so closely bound/together^T ml^he' mp fssbn "SSfffi 
mind, of one object not of many." -Murray' s Grammar/ P 

Precept 2. Treat different topics in separate paragraphs, and distinct sen 
timents in separate sentences. Error: "The two volume^ indeed ?£ 
-^ e ^^/l a C0USmUU ° Ue Xmif0Xm ByStem ° f E ^ lish ' ^atmar^ 

WtT?^ V^ P r °P es l, of a sentence, do not desert the principal sub- 
ject in favour of adjuncts. Error: " To substantives beW gender num- 
fe™ ?*V and ^%a f C gof the third person when spoSnof^ fof 
the second w,W «po^e« to."— Murray's Grammar ^ 

Precept 4. Do not introduce parentheses, except when a lively remark 
Subvert. * m tklg th6 mkld t0 ° l0ng from tne PrSpal 

SECTION YI. — OF STRENGTH. 

Strength consists in giving to the several words and members of a sentence 
Z C inf. arran ^ me - nt -f ? al bring ° Ut the sense t0 the b est advantage aS 
ablfto strength ^ m ^portance. A concise style is the most favour- 

Precept 1. Place the most important words in the situation in which they 
will make the strongest impression. * 

Precept 2. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and when 
the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the concluding 

Precept 3. When things are to be compared or contrasted, their resem- 
blance or opposition will be rendered more striking, if some resemblance in 
the language and construction, be preserved. 

Precept 4. It is, in general, ungraceful to end a sentence with an adverb 
a preposition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase, which may either ba 
onutted or be mcroduced earlier, ' J 



APPENDIX IV. 

(PROSODY.) 

OF POETIC DICTION. 



Poetrv as defined by Dr. Blair, " is the language of pasfi(Sn ? or of eiJivenea 



he accomplishes this end. The exterior ana ^ and ^ 



approach very nearly to poetical numbers. 

POETICAL PECULIARITIES. 
The following are some of the most striking peculiarities in which the 
poets indulge, and are indulged :— 

I. They very often omit the AKlll>L&& ; as, 

" What dreadful pleasure ! there to stand sublime, # 
Like shipwrecked mariner on desert coast T— Seattle. 

II. They abbreviate many NOUNS: as, amaze for amazement ; ac Mm 
for acclamation • consult for •consultation ; corse, for corpse; eve, or m», # for 
eZZia™ fount, Z fountain; helm, for AeZme*; &»«*»{, for U^ntaUon ; 
Zorn% mining; plaint, for complaint; targe, for toiyet; «xoi, for wealth. 

III. They employ several nouns that are not used in P™ 8e i °* » e ^ 
but rarely ; ^ benison, boon, emprise, fane, guerdon, guise, ire, ken, lore, 
meed, sire, steed, stithy, welkin, yore. 

IV. They introduce the noun self after an other noun of the possessive 
case; as, 

1. " Affliction's semblance bends not o'er thy tomb, 

Affliction's self deplores thy youthful doom."— ^ww*. 

2. "Thoughtless of beauty, she was beauty's^/. —Inomson. 

V. They place before the verb, nouns, or other words, that usually come 
after it ; and, after it, those that usually come before it: as, 

1. " No iealousy their dawn of love o'ercast, 

Nor blasted were their wedded days with strife."— Beattie. 

2 "No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets." ; 

3 " Thy chain a wretched weight shall ^rove^—Langhorne. 

4. " Follows the loosen'd aggravated roar ."--Thomson. 

5. " That purple grows the primrose paW—Langkorne. 

VI. They often place ADJECTIVES after their nouns ; as, 
1. " Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand, 

Showers on her kings barbaric, pearl and j gold."— Milton. 
%. " Come, nymph demure with mantle blue. 1 



APPENDIX IV.— (PROSODY.)— POETIC DICTION. 841 

VII. They ascribe qualities to things to which they do not literally he- 
long; as, 

1. " Or drowsy tinMings lull the distant folds." — Gray. 

2. "Imbitter'd more and more from peevish day to day." — Thomson. 

3. 'All thin and naked, to the numb cold nighty — Shakspeare. 

VIII. They use concrete terms to express abstract qualities ; (i. e., adjeo« 
tives for nouns ;) as, 

1. " Earth's meanest son, all trembling, prostrate falls, 

And on the boundless of thy goodness calls." — Young. 

2. " Meanwhile, whate'er of beautiful or new, 

Sublime or dreadful, in earth, sea, or sky, 
By chance or search was offered to his view, 
He scann'd with curious and romantic eye." — Beattie. 
8. "Won from the void and formless infinite.' 1 '' — Milton. 

IX. They substitute quality for manner ; (i. e., adjectives for adverbs ;) 
as, 

1. ". The stately-sailing swan, 

Gives out his snowy plumage to the gale ; 

And, arching proud his neck, with oary feet. 

Bears forward fierce, and guards his osier isle." — Thomson. 

2. " Thither continual pilgrims crowded still." — Id. 

X. They form new compound epithets ; as, 

1. "In world-rejoicing state, it moves sublime." — Thomson. 

2. "The dewy-skirted clouds imbibe the sun." — Id. 

3. "By brooks and groves in hollow-whispering gales." — Id. 

4. "The violet of shy-woven vest." — Langhorne. 

5. " A league from Epidamnum had we sailed, 

Before the always-wind-obeying deep 

Gave any tragic instance of our harm." — Shalcspeare. 

XI. They connect the comparative degree to the positive ; as, 

1. " Near and more near the billows rise." — Merrick. 

2. " Wide and wider spreads the vale." — Dyer. 

3. " Wide and more ivide, the o'erflowings of the mind 

Take every creature in, of every kind."— Pope. 

XII. They form many adjectives in y, which are not common in prose ; 
as, Agleamy ray, — towery height, — steepy hill, — steely casque, — heapy harvests, 
— moony shield, — writhy snake, — stilly lake, — vasty deep,— paly circlet. 

XIII. They employ adjectives of an abbreviated form : as, dread, for 
dreadful,' drear, for dreary ; ebon, for ebony,' hoar, for hoary,' lone, for 
lonely ; scant, for scanty ; slope, for sloping / submiss, for submissive / vermil, 
for vermillion ; yon, for yonder. 

XIV. They employ several adjectives that are not used in prose, or are 
used but seldom ; as, azure, blithe, boon, dank, darkling, darksome, doughty, 
dun, fell, rife, rapt, rueful, sear, sylvan, twain, wan. 

XV. They employ personal PBONOUNS, and introduce their nouns 
afterwards; as, 

1. " It curl'd not Tweed alone, that breeze:''— W. Scott. 

2. "Is it the lightning's quivering glance, 

That on the thicket streams ; 
Or do they flash on spear and lance, 
The sun's retiring beams V—Id. 

XVI. They sometimes omit the relative, of the nominative case; as, 
" For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise ?" — Thomson. 

XVII. They omit the antecedent, or introduce it after the relative j as, 
1. " Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys, 

Who never toils or watches, never Bleeps."— Armstrong. 
29* 



842 INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. " Who dares think one thing and an other tell, 

My soul detests him as the gates of hell." — Pope's Eomer. 

XVIII. They remove relative pronouns and other connectives, into the 
body of their clauses ; as, 

1. "Parts the fine locks, her graceful head that deck." — Darwin. 

2. " Not half so dreadful rises to the sight 

Orion's dog, the year when autumn weighs." — Pope^s Homer. 

XIX. They make intransitive VERBS transitive ; as, 

1. " A while he stands, 

Gazing the inverted landscape, half afraid 

To meditate the blue profound below." — Thomson. 

2. " Still in harmonious intercourse, they liv'd 

The rural day, and talked the flowing heart." — Id. 

XX. They give to the imperative mood the first and the third person J as, 

1. " Turn we a moment fancy's rapid flight." — Thomson. 

2. " Be man's peculiar work his sole delight." — Beattie. 

3. " And what is reason ? Be she thus defined: 

Reason is upright stature in the soul!" — Young. 

XXI. They employ can, could, and would as principal verbs transitive , 
as, 

1. " What for ourselves we can, is always ours." 

2. " Who does the best his circumstance allows, 

Does well, acts nobly : — angels could no more." — Young. 

3. " What would this man ? Now upward will he soar, 

And, little less than angel, would be more." — Pope. 

XXII. They place the infinitive before the word on which it depends ; as, 

" When first thy sire to send on earth 
Virtue, his darling child, designed." — Gray. 

XXIII. They place the auxiliary after its principal ; as, 

" No longer heed the sunbeam bright 
That plays on Carron's breast he can." — Langhorne. 

XXIV. Before verbs they sometimes arbitrarily employ or omit prefixes : 
as, begird, bedim, evanish, emove ; for gird, dim, vanish, move: — lure % wail, 
wilder, reave ; for allure, bewail, bewilder, bereave. 

XXV. They abbreviate verbs: as, list, for listen; ope, for open. 

XXVI. They employ several verbs that are not used in prose, or are used 
but rarely ; as, appal, astound, brook, cower, doff, ken, wend, ween, trow. 

XXVII. They sometimes imitate a Greek construction of the infinitive j 
as, 

1. " Who would not sing for Lycidas? he knew 

Himself to sing, and build the lofty rhyme." — Milton. 

2. " For not, to have been dippi'd in Lethe lake, 

Could save the son of Thetis from to die." — Spenser. 

XXVIII. They employ the PARTICIPLES more frequently than proso 
writers, and in a construction somewhat peculiar ; as, 

1. " He came, and, standing in the midst, explain' d 

The peace rejected, but the truce obtained." — Pope. 

2. "Asa poor miserable captive thrall 




spectacle 

XXIX. They employ several AD VERBS that are not used in prose, op 
are used but seldom ; as, oft, haply, inly, blUTiely, cheerily, deftly, f my, rifety t 
ruefully, starkly, yarely. 



APPENDIX IV.— ( PROSODY.)-— POETIC DICTION. 343 

XXX. They give to adverbs a peculiar location ; as, 

1. " Peeping from forth their alleys green." — Collins. 

2. " Erect the standard there of ancient night." — Milton. 
£. " The silence often of pure innocence 

Persuades, when speaking fails." — Shahspeare. 
A. " Where universal love not smiles around/' — Thomson. 
5. " Robs me of that which not enriches him." — Shahspeare. 

XXXI. They omit the introductory adverb there ; as, 

" Was nought around but images of rest." — Thomson, 

XXXII. They employ the CONJUNCTIONS, or— or, and nor— nor, as 
correspondents ; as, 

1. " Or by the lazy Scheldt or wandering Po." — Goldsmith. 

2. " Wealth heap'd on wealth, nor truth nor safety buys." — Johnson. 

3. " Who by repentance is not satisfied, 

Is nor of heaven, nor earth." — Shahspeare. 

XXXIII. They often place PREPOSITIONS and their adjuncts, before 

the wordo on which they depend ; as, 

" Against your fame with fondness hate combines ; 
The rival batters, and the lover mines." — Johnson. 

XXXIV. They sometimes place the preposition after its object ; as, 

1. ,k When beauty, Eden's lowers within, 

First stretch'd the arm to deeds of sin, 
When passion burn'd, and prudence slept, 
The tntying angels bent and wept." — Hogg. 

2. " The Muses fair, these peaceful shades among, 

With skillful fingers sweep the trembling strings." — Lloyd. 

XXXV. They employ INTERJECTIONS more frequently than pros© 
writers; as, 

41 let me gaze ! — Of gazing there's no end. 
O let me think ! — Thought too is wilder'd here." — Young. 

XXXVI. They employ ANTIQUATED WORDS and modes of expres- 
sion; as, 

1. " Withouten that would come an heavier bale." — Thomson* 

2. "He was to weet, a little roguish page, 

Save sleep and play, who minded nought at all." — Id. 
8. " Not one eftsoons in view was to be found." — Id. 

4. " To number up the thousands dwelling here, 

An useless were, and ehe an endless task." — Id. 

5. " Of clerks good plenty here you mote espy." — Id. 

6. " But these \passen, by, with nameless numbers moe*"~ Id. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ORAL LESSONS. 

[PRELIMINARY TO THE REGULAR STUDY OP THIS WORK.] 



LESSON I. 

{holding up any object, as a pen, a booh, a pencil, etc., so 
that it may be seen by the pupils). What is the name of this 
object ? What is the name of this ? Of this ? Of this ? 

Pupils (successively). Book. Slate. Pencil. Pen. 

T. ( Writing the names upon the blackboard, or requiring the 
pupils to write them.) Now read the names of the objects. 

P. Book. Slate. Pencil. Pen. 

T. What are these words ? 

P. The names of things. 

T. Can we talk of things without knowing their names ? 

P. We cannot. 

T. You see then how necessary it is that everything should have 
a name, and that we should have a correct knowledge of the 
names of things. 

Now you may write the following : — 

1. Five names of parts of your body. 

2. Five names of parts of the chair. 

3. Five names of things which you have seen. 

4. Five names of flowers. 

5. Five names of fruit. 

6. Five names of places. 

7. Five names of persons. 

[Require the pupils in writing these names to commence each with a capital, and 
place a period after each word. Everything should be done with care and accuracy.] 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ORAL LESSONS. 345 



LESSON II. 

Teacher (holding up a look). What is the name of this? 
JPupils. Book. 

T. Can you say something about this book ? 
P. The book is new. The book is green. The 
book has covers. The book has leaves, etc., etc. 

[In the same manner let the pupil say or write something about other things the 
names of which have been mentioned in Lesson I. In writing these statements care 
should be taken that they are correct as to capitals, spelling, and punctuation.] 

The teacher now writes on the blackboard : — 

The birds is pretty. t Bees makes honey. My pen are lad. We 
was going home. 

T. Bead what I have written on the blackboard, and tell me 
what you think of it. 

P. It is wrong. 

T. Tell me what is wrong. 

The pupils mention what is wrong in each statement, and cor- 
rect it. 

T. Now you may write on your slates these statements as you 
have corrected them. 

T. Can you tell me why it is wrong to say, The birds is pretty, 
— why it should be, The birds are pretty f 

P. We do not know. 

T. That is true, children. You do not know this yet. Do you 
know what you must study to learn this ? 

P. Grammar. 

T. What language do you speak ? 

P. The English language. 

T. What grammar must you study, then ? 

P. English grammar. 

T. What is English grammar, then ? 

[See Definition, page 9.] 



346 SUGGESTIONS FOR ORAL LESSONS. 



LESSON III. 

Teacher writes on tne blackboard, 

Birds fly. 
T. Read what is written on the blackboard. 
Now, when you say, Birds fly, of what do you speak ? 
P. Birds. 

T. What do you say of birds ? 
P. They/y. 

T. Writes on the blackboard, Bees make honey. 
What is spoken of here ? 
P. Bees. 

T. What is said of tees ? 
P. They make honey. 
T. Writes on the blackboard the following, or similar sen- 



tences : — William plays. John studies. Mary sews. Bears 
Bees sting. Boys run. 

Tell me what are spoken of in these statements, and I will writo 
them, one under the other, on the blackboard. 



P. William 
John 


plays, 
studies 


Mary 
Bears 


sews. 
growl. 


Bees 
Boys 


sting. 
run. 



T. Now tell me what is said of each, and I will write it by 
the side of the other on the blackboard. 

[This exercise should be continued sufficiently long to impress the distinction de- 
signed to be taught clearly on the minds of the pupils. They should also be required 
to give such expressions, and separate them as above. It will be observed that the 
term sentence is not yet employed.] 



T. Whatever is spoken of is called the 
Whatever is said of the subject is called the predicate. 
Now write predicates for the following subjects : — 
Trees. Flowers. Apples. Oranges. Henry. Sarah. 



SUGGESTIONS FOE ORAL LESSONS. 347 

Write subjects for the following predicates : — 

is writing. sing. bloom. burns. 

fade. sail. runs. 



LESSON IT. 

T. A subject and predicate joined together make complete 
sense. 

[Writes on the blackboard, The booJo.] 

Do these words make complete sense i 

P. No. 

T. Why not ? 

P. There is no predicate 

T. Is the sense complete in this : — Huns. 

P. No; because there is no subject. 

T. Is the sense complete in these words, On the table. 

P. No. 

T. Why not? 

P. Because there is neither subject nor predicate. 

T. Whenever words make complete sense they form what is 
called a sentence. 

Define a sentence. [Text, page 20.] 

T. Find the subject and the predicate in each of the follow- 
ing:— 

Boys run. Bo boys run f Boys, run. 

T. Is the subject the same in each, then ? 

Is the predicate the same in each ? 

How do they differ, then ? 

P. The first affirms / the second asks a question ; 
the third commands. 

[These answers will readily be obtained from the pupils by a little skill on the part 
of the teacher ; and nothing should be told the pupils which they may be made to dis- 
cover themselves.] 

T. Then you can join the same subject and predicate together 
so as to make different kinds of sentences, introducing a small 
word occasionally, such as do or does, which does not essentially 
vary the meaning. 



348 SUGGESTIONS FOE OEAL LESSONS. 

Make questions from the sentences given in Lesson III. 

Make commands from the same or similar sentences. 

T. What name is given to each of these kinds of sentences ? 

[See text, page 28.] 



LESSON V. 

T. The names of persons, places, and things are called nouns. 

What is a noun ? [Text, page 19.] 

T. Must the subject of a sentence be a noun ? 

[This may be considered a thought-question. Let, therefore, the pupils have time 
to consider it, and the exercise should be varied to suit the answers elicited.] 

P. It must be a noun or something used for it. 

T. Give an example of each. 

P. John runs. He runs. 

T. What word is used for a noun in these sentences ? 

P. He. 

T. For what is it used ? 

P. John. 

T. Give other examples of sentences containing words used 
for nouns. 

T. Such words are called pronouns. Pro means for. 

What is apronounl [See text, page 19.] 

Write a list of all the pronouns you can think of. 

Teacher writes on the blackboard : — 

John gave John's ooolc to John's oroiher William. 

Are there any pronouns in this sentence ? 

P. No. 

T. Can you use pronouns for any of the nouns ? 

P. Yes. 

T. Read [or write] the sentence with as many pronouns as can 
be used. 

P. John gave his book to his brother William. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ORAL LESSONS. 349 

T. Is this sentence better than the other ? 

P. Yes. 

T. Why? 

P. Because the same noun is not repeated. 

T. What is the use of pronouns then ? 

P. To prevent repeating the same noun too often. 



LESSON VI. 

Teacher writes on the blackboard, Birds fly. Charles is taught. 
He is. 

T. Tell me the predicate in each of these sentences. What 
does the predicate^ denote, or show? 

P. "What the birds do. 

T. Then it shows they act ; does it not ? 

T. What is the predicate in the second sentence ? 

P. Is taught. 

T. Does this predicate show what Charles does, or what is done 
U him t 

P. What is done to him. 

T. Then it shows that he is acted upon ; does it not ? 

T. What is the predicate in the third sentence ? 

P. Is. 

T. Does the word is express action or being ? 

P. Being. 

T. That part of the predicate which signifies to be, to act, or 
to be acted upon, is called a verb. 
What is the definition of a verb ? [Text, page 19.] 



LESSON VII. 

Teacher writes on the blackboard, The bird sings. A bird 
can fly. 

T. What is the subject of the first sentence ? 
P. Bird. 



350 SUGGESTIONS FOR ORAL LESSONS. 

T. What is the subject of the second sentence ? 
P. Bird. 

T. When we say, " the bird," do we mean any bird, or some 
particular bird ? 

P. Some particular bird. 

T. What do we mean when we say, " a bird " ? 

P. Any bird. No particular bird. 

T. What is the use of these words a and the, then ? Do they 
change the meaning, or signification, of the nouns before which 
they are placed ? 

P. They do. 

T. They are said to limit it, because the bird, the flower, &c, 
do not have so wide a meaning as a bird, a flower, &c. 

T. Is it right to say, a apple, a eye, a oak ? 

P. No. 

T. What should we say instead of these ? 

P. An apple. An eye. An oak. 

T. These little words, a, an, the, are called articles. 

What is an article ? [Text, page 19.] 

T. To what are articles added ? 

P. To nouns. 

Whenever words are added to other words they are called ad- 
juncts. [See Text, page 32.] 

T. In the sentence, the good boy learns, what word besides the 
article, is added to the noun boy f 

P. The word good. 

T. For what purpose is it added ? 

P. To show what kind of a boy he is. 

T. That is, to show the quality. Such words are called adjec- 
tives. 

What is an adjective ? [Text, page 17.] 

[The pupil is now prepared for Exercises I. and II. on page 20.] 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ORAL LESSONS. 35 1 



LESSON VIII. 

Teacher writes on the blackboard, 
William, going home, lost his booh. 

T. What is the subject of this sentence ? 

P. William. 

T. What is added to it ? 

P. Going home. 

T. Of these two words which is an adjunct ? 

P. Home is an adjunct of going. 

T. What does it show ? 

P. Where "William was going. 

T. What does the word going signify \ 

P. Action. 

T. Then it is like what ? 

P. A verb. 

T. To what is it added ? 

P. To the noun William. 

T. Then it is like what else, besides a verb ? 

P. An adjective. 

T. It is, on this account, said to participate, or partake of, the 
properties of a verb and an adjective, and is therefore called a 
participle. 

Some participles participate the properties of a verb and a noun. 

What is a participle ? [Text, page 19.] 



LESSON IX. 

Teacher writes on the blackboard. The horse runs swiftly. 

T. What is the subject of this sentence ? 

P. Horse. 

T. What is added to it ? 

P. The article the. 



352 SUGGESTIONS FOR ORAL LESSONS. 

T. What is the verb or predicate of this sentence ? 

P. Rims. 

T. What is added to it ? 

P. Swiftly. 

T. What does the word swiftly show ? 

P. How the horse runs. 

T. Then it expresses manner ; does it not ? 

T. [Writes on the blackboard, The horse runs very swiftly.] 

What word is added to swiftly in this sentence ? 

P. Very, 

T. What does it show? 

P. How swiftly the horse runs. 

T. Then it expresses degree ; does it not ? 

What word expresses degree in this sentence, John is an exceed- 
ingly bright scholar ? 

P. Exceedingly. 

T. To what word is it added ? 

P. To bright, — an adjective. 

T. Such words are called adverbs. They are added to Verbs, 
participles, adjectives, or other adverbs. 

What is an adverb ? [Text, page 19.] 

Write a sentence containing an adverb of manner. 

Write one containing an adverb of degree. 



LESSON X. 

Teacher writes on the blackboard, John is a good scholar. Wil- 
liam is a good scholar. Charles is a good scholar. 

T. How many sentences have I written on the blackboard ? 
Bead them. 

In what respect are they alike ? 

P. The predicate is the same in each. 

T. Can you join them together so as to have only one predi- 
cate? 

P. John, William and Charles are good scholars. 



is 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ORAL LESSONS. 353 

T. What have you joined— the subjects or the predicates ? 
P. The subjects. 
T. What word is used to join them ? 
P. The word and. 

Teacher writes on the blackboard, Mary is diligent. Eer sister 
idle. 

T. Read the sentences I have written. 
Can you join them together as you joined the other sentences ? 

P. No. 

T. Why not ? 

P. Because they have different subjects and predi- 
cates. 

T. Can you join them together at all ? 

p Y es • — Mary is diligent, but her sister is idle. 

T. What word have you used to connect these sentences ? 

P. But. 

T. Words used to connect words or sentences are called con- 
junctions. 

What is a conjunction ? [Text, page 19.] 

Write a sentence containing words connected by a conjunction. 

Write two sentences, and connect them by a conjunction. 



LESSON XI. 

Teacher writes on the blackboard, The dird flew over the tree. 
The ooy climbed up the tree. 

T. What is the subject in each of these sentences ? 

P. Bird— Boy. 

T. What is the predicate ? 

P. Flew — Climbed. 

T. To what is the action expressed in these verbs related ? 

P. To the tree. 

T. Is the relation the same in each sentence ? 

P. No ; it is over the tree in one, and up the tree in 
the other. 



354 SUGGESTIONS FOR ORAL LESSONS. 

T. What words express this relation ? 
F. Over and up. 

T. w Words expressing relation in this manner are called p?'e~ 
positions. 

What is a preposition? [Text, page 20.] 

Mention all the prepositions you can think of. 

Write a sentence containing any of those prepositions. 



LESSON XII. 



Teacher writes on the blackboard, Oh ! how beautiful is the sJcy ! 
The sTcy is beautiful. 

T. What is the difference in the meaning of these sentences ? 

P. There is no difference. 

T. Do you not think that one means more than the other ? 

P. The first perhaps. 

T. Yes ; how does it mean more ? 

P. It indicates emotion on the part of the speaker ; 
but the fact expressed is the same. 

T. That is true. What word is used to indicate this emotion ? 

P. Oh! 

T. What point is placed after it ? 
P. An exclamation point. 
What may such sentences be called ? 
P. Exclamatory sentences. 

T. Words used to indicate strong emotion are called inter- 
jections. 

What is an interjection? [Text, page 20.] 

Write sentences containing interjections, 

T. Do all words in a sentence perform the same office ? 

P. No. 

T. Tell me what office some perform ? 

P. Some are names of things ; some express action / 
some, quality ; others, relation ; and some are used to 
connect, etc., etc. 



SUGGESTIONS FOR ORAL LESSONS. 355 

T. On this account words have been arranged in classes, called 
Parts of Speech. 

What are the parts of speech in English? [Text, page 18.] 

[The pupil is now prepared for Exercise III., on page 21, and for the exercises on 
pp. 29 and 33. Similar lessons on the classification of the parts of speech, their modi- 
fication, etc., should precede or accompany the different sections, in order to develop 
in the mind of the pupil the requisite ideas of the various subjects proposed, before 
formal statements or brief definitions. The latter are very apt to be committed to 
memory by rote, and of course without any exercise of intelligence on the part of the 
pupil. The above lessons, being designed only to suggest a method of introducing the 
subject of Grammar to the young mind, are necessarily brief ; the teacher will, how- 
ever, find no difficulty in expanding them at certain points, wherever the circumstances 
may seem to require it.] 






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